Leitlinienprogramm OnkologieHepatozelluläres Karzinom und biliäre Karzinome

3. Diagnostik und Therapie des Hepatozellulären Karzinoms – Hepatozelluläres Karzinom und biliäre Karzinome

Version 5.2 · Mai 2025 · AWMF 032-053OL
Leitlinienprogramm Onkologie · Deutsche Krebsgesellschaft · Deutsche Krebshilfe · AWMF

3.1 Risikofaktoren, Prävention und Früherkennung

3.1.1 Risikofaktoren und Früherkennung

3.1 · Evidenzbasiertes Statement · geprüft 2024

Patienten mit einer Leberzirrhose haben ein erhöhtes Risiko für die Entwicklung eines HCC.

Evidenzlevel
1

Leitlinienadaptation: AASLD

Konsens
Starker Konsens
Literatur
[2]

Die Inzidenz von malignen Lebertumoren ist in den letzten Dekaden deutlich angestiegen. Das primäre Leberzellkarzinom (HCC) ist hierbei der weltweit häufigste maligne Lebertumor. Nach aktuellen GLOBOCAN-Daten erkrankten 2020 weltweit mehr als 905 000 Menschen an einem primären Lebertumor (HCC und intrahepatisches Cholangiokarzinom) und mehr als 830 000 verstarben daran [3]. Die Inzidenz ist in den letzten Jahren angestiegen. Während 1999 in Deutschland 5912 Patienten an einem primären Leberkrebs erkrankten, lag 2017 die Zahl bei 8943 Patienten. Die Mortalität lag 2017 bei 7910 Patienten in Deutschland [4]. Bis zu 80% der globalen Erkrankungsfälle betreffen süd-ostasiatische Länder und Länder des afrikanischen Kontinents südlich der Sahara. Dies wird vor allem durch die dort hohe Inzidenz einer chronischen Hepatitis-B-Virus (HBV)-Infektion bedingt. In Europa, Nordamerika und Japan ist die HCC-Inzidenz deutlich niedriger. Die häufigsten Risikofaktoren für ein HCC in Deutschland sind derzeit eine chronische Hepatitis-C-Virus (HCV)-Infektion und Alkoholkonsum. Die Inzidenz des HCC in der westlichen Welt hat aufgrund chronischer HCV-Infektion-bedingter Leberzirrhosen als auch der deutlichen Zunahme von metablische Dysfunktion-assoziierter steatotischer Lebererkrankung (MASLD) und metabolische Dysfunktion-assoziierter Steatohepatitis (MASH) mit fortgeschrittener Fibrose oder Zirrhose deutlich zugenommen [5].

Eine Leberzirrhose ist jedoch weiterhin der wichtigste Risikofaktor für die Entwicklung eines HCC. Prinzipiell weist jeder Patient mit einer Leberzirrhose unabhängig von der zugrunde liegenden Ätiologie (HCV, HBV, MASH/metabolisches Syndrom, chronischer Alkoholabusus, Hämochromatose, α1-Antitrypsin-Mangel u.a.) ein erhöhtes HCC-Risiko auf. Das relative Risiko unterscheidet sich jedoch je nach Ursache der Erkrankung erheblich. Kohortenstudien haben gezeigt, dass etwa 1- 8% aller Patienten mit Zirrhose ein HCC entwickeln (2% bei HBV, 3-8% bei HCV) [6], [7], [8]. Bei einer MASLD oder MASH variiert hingegen die HCC-Inzidenz sehr stark (0,004 - 7,6%) [9], [10]. Je nach Gesundheitswesen ist ein HCC-Früherkennungsprogramm kosteneffizient ab einer jährlichen HCC Inzidenz von 0,2%  bzw. 1,5% [11], [12].

3.2 · Evidenzbasierte Empfehlung · geprüft 2024

Patienten mit einer chronischen Hepatits B-Virusinfektion haben ein erhöhtes Risiko für die Entwicklung eines HCC. Diesen Patienten sollte ab einem PAGE-B Score von 10 eine regelmäßige Früherkennung angeboten werden.

Empfehlungsgrad
B: Empfehlung für oder gegen eine Maßnahme - verwendete Ausdrucksweise = sollte/sollte nicht
Evidenzlevel
2

Primärrecherche

Konsens
Konsens
Literatur
[13] [14]
Evidenztabellen (1)HCC PAGE-B, Fib-4

Patienten mit chronischer HBV weisen auch trotz antiviraler Therapie ein erhöhtes HCC-Risiko auf. Durch eine antivirale Therapie wird das Risiko verringert. Durch Verwendung des PAGE-B Scores kann eine Risiko-Stratifizierung erfolgen [14].

Durch eine antivirale Therapie bei chronischer HBV mit einem Nukleoside/Nukleotide-Analogon wird sowohl das Risiko der Progression der Leberzirrhose inkl. hepatischer Dekompensation als auch das HCC-Risiko reduziert [5]. Diese Patienten weisen jedoch trotz antiviraler Therapie teilweise ein deutlich erhöhtes HCC-Risiko im Vergleich zur Allgemeinbevölkerung auf [15]. Für asiatische Patienten wurden deshalb verschiedene klinische Risikobewertungssysteme wie z.B. GAG-HCC, CU-HCC oder REACH-B-Score, publiziert [16], [17], [18].

Für kaukasische Patienten mit chronischer HBV wurde das PAGE-B-Bewertungssystem etabliert [14]. Hierbei wird aufgrund folgender Punkte ein Score errechnet:

  • Alter (16-29 Jahre: 0 Punkte; 30-39 Jahre: 2 Punkte; 40-49 Jahre: 4 Punkte; 50-59 Jahre: 6 Punkte; 60-69 Jahre: 8 Punkte und ≥ 70 Jahre: 10 Punkte),
  • Geschlecht (weiblich: 0 Punkte; männlich: 6 Punkte) und
  • Thrombozytenzahl (≥ 200/nl: 0 Punkte; 100-199/nl: 6 Punkte; < 100/nl: 9 Punkte)

Aus Praktikabilitätsgründen wurde das Vorhandensein einer Leberzirrhose nicht in das Bewertungssystem aufgenommen. Das 5 Jahres-HCC-Risiko lag bei einem PAGE-B Score ≤ 9 bei 0%, bei einem PAGE-B Score 10-17 bei 3% und bei einem PAGE-B Score ≥ 18 bei 17%. Im Vergleich zu GAG-HCC, CU-HCC, REACH-B- und FIB-4-Score konnte der PAGE-B Score das HCC-Risiko bei kaukasischen Patienten mit chronischer HBV-Infektion besser vorhersagen [13]. Eine große Untersuchung aus China konnte jüngst zeigen, dass der PAGE-B-Score ebenfalls für die HCC-Risikoeinschätzung asiatischer Patienten geeignet ist [19].

3.3 · Konsensbasierte Empfehlung · modifiziert 2024

Bei fortgeschrittener Fibrose mit chronischer HCV-Infektion sollte eine regelmäßige Früherkennung angeboten werden.

 

Patienten mit einer fortgeschrittenen Leberfibrose, auf der Grundlage einer anderen, nicht-viralen Ursache der Lebererkrankung, kann die Teilnahme an einer HCC-Früherkennung angeboten werden.

Konsens
Starker Konsens
ÄnderungshinweisBei fortgeschrittener Fibrose sollte HCV-Patienten eine regelmäßige Früherkennung angeboten werden. NAFLD-Patienten mit fortgeschrittener Fibrose kann ein solches Screening ebenfalls angeboten werden.

Bei Patienten ohne Leberzirrhose ist die Risikoanalyse deutlich schwieriger. In der EASL-Leitlinie wird das Risiko bei fortgeschrittener Fibrose zwar gewürdigt, aufgrund der damaligen Datenlage resultierte jedoch nur eine schwache Empfehlung eine Früherkennung durchzuführen [5]. In der AASLD-Leitlinie fehlt eine solche Betrachtung bislang [20].

Diabetes und Adipositas sind etablierte Risikofaktoren sowohl für eine MASLD als auch für die Entwicklung eines HCC. Ursächlich sind eine Insulin-Resistenz und entzündliche Veränderungen der Leber bei MASLD, was letztlich zu einer MASH führen kann. Patienten mit MASH und Leberzirrhose weisen ein erhöhtes HCC-Risiko auf. Das HCC-Risiko bei MASH ohne Zirrhose ist hingegen variabel. Etliche jüngere Publikationen konnten zeigen, dass bei einem Teil der Patienten mit MASH und HCC keine Zirrhose vorhanden ist [9], [21]. Hierbei handelt es sich jedoch in der Regel um retrospektive Kohortenstudien.

Wir möchten an dieser Stelle auf die S2k-Leitlinie "Nicht alkoholische Fettlebererkrankung" hinweisen, die im April 2022 publiziert wurde. Im März 2024 ist ein Amendment erfolgt.

Chronische Lebererkrankungen unter­schied­licher Ursachen können zu einer Fibrosierung des Lebergewebes bis hin zur Leberzirrhose führen. Die Festlegung des Fibrose-Stadiums erfolgt klassischerweise histopathologisch anhand verschiedener Klassifikationssysteme die häufig krankheitsspezifisch sind, wie z.B. dem METAVIR-Score, nach Desmet und Scheuer, Knodell oder Ishak [22]. Eine fortgeschrittene Fibrose (≥F3) zeigt histopathologisch gemäß METAVIR-Score eine portale Faservermehrung mit zahlreichen Bindegewebssepten ohne Zirrhose. Bildgebende Verfahren, wie Sonographie, Computertomographie (CT) und Magnetresonanztomographie (MRT), erlauben erst in fortgeschrittenen Stadien den sicheren Nachweis einer Leberzirrhose. Die histopathologische Klassifikation des Fibrosestadiums anhand einer Leberbiopsie wird zunehmend verlassen aufgrund der Invasivität, der niedrigen Akzeptanz, der Kosten, aber auch wegen eines potenziellen Stichprobenfehlers aufgrund eines inhomogenen fibrotischen Umbaus.

Die HCC-Entwicklung bei MASLD-Patienten mit einer fortgeschrittenen Leberfibrose oder Leberzirrhose liegt bei 1,25 pro 1000 Personenjahre für alle MASLD-Patienten und bei 14,46 pro 1000 Personenjahre für MASLD mit fortgeschrittener Fibrose und Zirrhose [23]. Die Patientengruppe mit fortgeschrittener Fibrose und Zirrhose wird allerdings in den aktuellen Metananalysen zumeist nicht differenziert. Zur Inzidenz bei MASH F3 oder F2/F3 Patienten gibt es leider keine belastbaren Daten. Die Gruppe „MASH ohne Zirrhose und mit hohem FIB-4“ als Surrogat für das Risiko einer höhergradigen Fibrose bei Kanwal et al. [9] kommt dem noch am nächsten. Hier wird eine Inzidenz von 0,08 pro 1000 Personenjahre für MASH Patienten mit niedrigem FIB-4 beschrieben. Eine große retrospektive Kohortenstudie aus Deutschland konnte die Rolle von FIB-4 als Risikomarker für die Entstehung eines HCC bestätigen [24]. Die kumulative Inzidenz innerhalb von 10 Jahren war hier in der Gruppe mit FIB-4 > 1,30 etwa 10-fach höher als mit FIB-4 < 1,30 (0,47 % vs. 0,04 %). Diese Daten unterstützen die aktuellen HCC-Überwachungsempfehlungen für MASLD. Zur Identifikation von Patienten mit „fortgeschrittener Fibrose“ können neben der Histologie auch verfügbare nichtinvasive Verfahren und Scores mit der Kategorisierung „erhöhtes Risiko“ herangezogen werden. Extrahepatische Karzinome sind bei MASLD achtmal häufiger als das HCC und nicht mit dem Stadium der Leberfibrose assoziiert. Da die weltweite Prävalenz von MASLD bei etwa 25 % liegt und weiter zunimmt, unterstützen diese Daten die Prävention und die über die Leber hinausgehende Früherkennung von Krebs bei Erwachsenen mit MASLD.

Zur nichtinvasiven Bestimmung der Lebersteifigkeit als Surrogatmarker einer Leberfibrose oder Zirrhose stehen deshalb heute verschiedene elastographische Verfahren, wie z.B. die transiente hepatische Elastographie (Fibroscan®), Scherwellen-Elastographie – auch als Acoustic Radiation Force Impulse (ARFI) Elastographie bezeichnet - und die MR-Elastographie, zur Verfügung [25]. Daneben kommen verschiedene blutbasierte, häufig krankheitsspezifische Fibrose-Scores zur Einschätzung einer Leberfibrose zur Anwendung, z.B. APRI-Index, MASLD Fibrose Score, FIB-4 u.a. [22], [26], [27], [28]. Bei den meisten Patienten lässt sich mithilfe nichtinvasiver Verfahren das Vorhandensein einer fortgeschrittenen Fibrose oder einer Leberzirrhose zuverlässig vorhersagen [22], [29].

Bei Patienten ohne chronische HBV und ohne Leberzirrhose ist das Risiko für die Entwicklung eines HCC deutlich niedriger [5]. Dementsprechend empfehlen weder AASLD noch EASL eine routinemäßige Früherkennung für diese Populationen [5], [20]. Patienten mit einer Leberzirrhose bei chronischer HCV weisen ein hohes HCC-Risiko mit einer jährlichen HCC-Inzidenz von 3- 8% auf [30], [31]. Liegt keine fortgeschrittene Leberfibrose vor, ist das Risiko gering [31]. Das HCC-Risiko sinkt bei Patienten mit chronischer HCV nach erfolgreicher Viruseradikation (SVR, sustained virological response) deutlich auf 0,33%-0,9%/Jahr [30], [32]. Bei bereits vorhandener Leberzirrhose ist das HCC-Risiko trotz SVR weiterhin erhöht. In der Literatur wird für diese Patienten ein HCC-Risiko zwischen 1,5 – 2,4%/Jahr berichtet [8], [30], [33]. Patienten mit SVR und einem erhöhtem AST/Thrombozyten-Ratio-Index (APRI) (APRI >2), ein nichtinvasiver Marker zur Detektion einer Leberfibrose, weisen auch ohne gesicherte Leberzirrhose ein leicht erhöhtes HCC-Risiko von 0,48%/Jahr auf [32]. Die asiatisch-pazifische HCC-Leitlinie hat diese relevanten Änderungen der Risikofaktoren bereits implementiert [34]. Entsprechend wird eine Früherkennung dort bei chronischer HCV nach SVR für ältere Patienten bzw. bei erniedrigter Thrombozytenzahl bzw. beim Vorliegen von Komorbiditäten wie Diabetes bzw. fortgesetztem Alkoholkonsum unabhängig vom Nachweis einer Leberzirrhose empfohlen.

Weiterhin nimmt der Anteil der Patienten mit einem HCC auf dem Boden einer MASH insbesondere in den USA und Europa deutlich zu und häufig liegt bei diesen Patienten noch keine Zirrhose vor [21]. Die HCC-Risikobewertung von Patienten mit MASH ohne Vorliegen einer Leberzirrhose ist deutlich schwieriger [5], [20], [34]. Wir möchten an dieser Stelle auf die aktualisierte S2k-Leitlinie " Nicht-alkoholische Fettlebererkrankung" hinweisen, die derzeit überarbeitet wird. Hier ist geplant auf die Vorsorgeuntersuchungen bei einer MASH oder MASLD detailliert einzugehen.

Aufgrund der Häufigkeit einer MASLD ist zu erwarten, dass dieser Risikofaktor in der nächsten Dekade der häufigste HCC-Auslöser in der westlichen Welt sein wird [35]. Ein Typ-2-Diabetes verdoppelte das Risiko für ein Fortschreiten der MASLD und das Mortalitätsrisiko stieg mit dem Krankheitsstadium an [36]. Eine wichtige Aufgabe der nächsten Jahre wird sein, Patienten mit MASLD und erhöhtem HCC-Risiko anhand prädiktiver Marker zu identifizieren und diese im Rahmen einer Früherkennung zu überwachen [37]. Hierzu können gemäß deutscher MASLD-Leitlinie eine Kombination von blutbasierten/demographischen Bewertungssystemen und nichtinvasiver apparativer Diagnostik zur Anwendung kommen [26], [27]. 

 

Bei Vorliegen einer MASH gibt es mehrere Genvarianten (PNPLA3 p.I148M, TM6SF2 p.E167K und MBOAT7 rs641738 ), die ein erhöhtes Risiko für die Entwicklung eines HCC aufweisen, wohingegen eine Variante im HSD17B13 Gen rs72613567 das Risiko reduziert. Eine Addition der Risiko-Allele im PNPLA3, TM6SF2 mit dem HSD17B13 Wildtyp-(Risiko-)Allel ergab bei Vorliegen von 4 Risiko-Allelen ein 3,3-fach erhöhtes und bei Vorliegen von 5-6 Risiko-Allelen ein 29-fach erhöhtes HCC Risiko in der Bevölkerung (über 100.000 Personen aus Copenhagen, über 300.000 Personen aus der UK Biobank) [38]. Aufgrund des niedrigen positiven prädiktiven Werts für eine HCC-Entwicklung kann der Score aber nicht für ein unselektives Screening in der Allgemeinbevölkerung empfohlen werden. Der Wert für das Screening in Risikoindividuen muss prospektiv weiter untersucht werden.

Tabelle 4: HCC-Risikobewertung bei HCV, HBV, MASH und MASLD

Erkrankungen

HCC-Risiko (jährliche Inzidenz)

Referenzen

HCV ohne Zirrhose

SVR nach DAAD

Insgesamt

Regression der fortgeschrittenen Leberfibrose*

Keine fortgeschrittene Leberfibrose

1,3 %

1,6 %

0,4 %

Kanwal 2020 [8]

HCV-Zirrhose SVR nach DAAD

Insgesamt

Persistierende fortgeschrittene Leberfibrose*

Regression der fortgeschrittenen Leberfibrose*

2,3%

6,5%

1,9 %

Kanwal 2020 [8]

HBV

HBsAg-Trägerstatus**

Chronische HBV ohne Zirrhose (unbehandelt) **

0,03-0,07 %

0,12 %

Raffetti 2016 [39]

Chronische HBV mit Zirrhose (unbehandelt) **

2,03 %

Raffetti 2016 [39]

Chronische HBV ohne Zirrhose (behandelt)

0,01-1,4 %

Papatheodoridis 2015 [40]

Chronische HBV mit Zirrhose (behandelt)

0,9-5,4 %

Papatheodoridis 2015 [40]

MASH

MASH mit Zirrhose und mit hohem FIB-4***

1,36 %

Kanwal 2018 [9]

MASH mit Zirrhose und normalem FIB-4

0,48 %

Kanwal 2018 [9]

MASH ohne Zirrhose und mit hohem FIB-4

0,04 %

Kanwal 2018 [9]

MASH ohne Zirrhose und normalem FIB-4

0,004 %

Kanwal 2018 [9]

MASLD

Ohne Leberfibrose

Fortgeschrittene Leberfibrose

Ohne Zirrhose

Zirrhose

0,001 %

0,03 %

0,03%

3,78 %

Simeone 2017 [36]

Orci 2022 [41]

Ohne Leberfibrose

0,07 %

Björkstrom 2022 [42]

Alkohol-assoziierte Leberzirrhose (ALD)

1,0%

Huang 2023 [43]

*Die Berechnung des FIB-4-Scores erfolgt anhand folgender Formel: Alter (Jahre) × GOT (U/l) / [Thrombozytenzahl (109/l) × √GPT (U/l)]. Das Risiko für eine fortgeschrittene (≥ Metavir F3) Leberfibrose wurde durch einen FIB-4-Score > 3,25 definiert; bei einem FIB-4-Score < 1,45 ist eine fortgeschrittene Leberfibrose unwahrscheinlich; bei einem FIB-4-Score zwischen 1,45-3,25 erfolgt zusätzlich die Bestimmung des APRI-Score (≥ 1,5: hohes Risiko; < 1,: geringes Risiko) zur Risikobewertung.

**Daten für Europa.

*** definiert als ein FIB-4-Score ≥ 2,67

Seltene Erkrankungen mit einem erhöhten Risiko für die Entwicklung eines HCCs

Bei selteneren Erkrankungen kann ein erhöhtes Risiko für die Entwicklung eines HCC vorliegen.

Unter anderem ergaben Daten aus dem Schwedischen Porphyrie-Register bei den über 50-Jährigen eine jährliche Inzidenz an primären Lebertumoren von 1,8% (Hazard Ratio 38). Bisher liegen diese Daten nur als Abstract vor, vergleichbare Daten wurde aber bereits 1984 in einer früheren schwedischen Kohorte [44] und kürzlich auch aus Norwegen publiziert [45].

Bei Vorliegen einer Glykogenspeicherkrankheit, insbesondere Typ Ia und Ib, muss mit dem Auftreten von Adenomen und maligner Transformation gerechnet werden [46]  [47]. Patienten mit M. Gaucher haben ein deutlich erhöhtes Risiko, auch ohne Zirrhose, ein HCC zu entwickeln [48]. Als Risikofaktoren für die HCC-Entwicklung werden hier ein Zustand nach Splenektomie, die Präsenz einer Fibrose oder Zirrhose, eine persistierende Hyperferritinämie sowie eine begleitende HBV- oder HCV-Infektion angesehen [49].

Die Tyrosinämie Typ I ist inzwischen in das Neugeborenen-Screening aufgenommen worden. Unbehandelt ist sie der häufigste Grund für das HCC beim Kind. Seit Einführung der Therapie mit Nitisinon hat sich die Prognose der behandelten Kinder deutlich verbessert, sodass die Patienten i. d. R. das Erwachsenenalter erreichen [50]. Das Risiko für das HCC ist vermutlich lebenslang erhöht, sodass jeder Patient mit Tyrosinämie Typ I intensiv überwacht werden sollte.

3.1.2 Prophylaktische und therapeutische Maßnahmen zur Reduktion des HCC-Risikos

3.1.2.1 Primäre Prävention

3.4 · Konsensbasierte Empfehlung · geprüft 2024
Entsprechend den Empfehlungen der Ständigen Impfkommission am Robert Koch-Institut (STIKO) sollen gegen Hepatitis-B-Virus geimpft werden:
  • alle Säuglinge ab dem vollendeten 2. Lebensmonat,
  • alle Neugeborenen HBsAg-positiver Mütter oder von Müttern mit unbekanntem HBsAg-Status innerhalb von 12 Stunden,
  • alle noch nicht geimpften Kinder und Jugendlichen bis zum vollendeten 17. Lebensjahr, möglichst vor Beginn der Pubertät,
  • alle in der Indikationsliste der STIKO aufgeführten Personen mit erhöhtem Hepatitis-B-Risiko.
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Starker Konsens

Die intrauterine oder peripartale HBV-Transmission von der Mutter auf den Fetus ist weltweit  wahrscheinlich für die Hälfte aller HBV-Erkrankungsfälle verantwortlich [51]. Das Risiko einer Übertragung von HBeAg-positiven Müttern auf ihre Kinder liegt bei 70-90%. Bei HBeAg-negativen Müttern ist das Risiko niedriger. Durch die Einführung von Vakzinierungsprogrammen wird das vertikale Transmissionsrisiko um 90% reduziert. In Taiwan wurde durch die Einführung von HBV-Vakzinierungsprogrammen ab den 1980er-Jahren die Rate von HBV-Neuinfektionen bei Kindern von 86-96% auf 12-14% (HBeAg-positive Mütter) bzw. von 10-12% auf 3-4% (HBeAg-negative Mütter) gesenkt. Als Folge ist die HCC-Inzidenz, insbesondere bei männlichen Jugendlichen, deutlich rückläufig [52], [53]. In Deutschland wurde die HBV-Vakzinierung 1995 durch die STIKO eingeführt.

3.1.2.2 Sekundäre Prävention

3.5 · Konsensbasierte Empfehlung · modifiziert 2024

Die Ursachen einer chronischen Lebererkrankung sollen, soweit möglich, behandelt werden - bei einer chronischen Hepatitis-Virusinfektion mittels einer antiviralen Therapie  -, um eine Progression einschließlich der Entwicklung eines HCCs zu verhindern.

Konsens
Starker Konsens
ÄnderungshinweisDie Ursachen einer chronischen Lebererkrankung sollen, soweit möglich, behandelt werden, um eine Progression einschließlich der Entwicklung eines HCCs zu verhindern.

Die Indikation zur Therapie sowie Auswahl, Dosis und Dauer der antiviralen Therapie der Hepatitis B oder C erfolgt gemäß der aktuellen S3-Leitlinie sowie dem Addendum bzgl. der HCV-Therapie (Stand 03/2023). Andere behandelbare chronische Lebererkrankungen werden gemäß aktuellen Leitlinien behandelt (https://www.dgvs.de/leitlinien/).

3.6 · Evidenzbasierte Empfehlung · geprüft 2024

Patienten mit chronischen Lebererkrankungen sollte der Konsum von Kaffee empfohlen werden.

Empfehlungsgrad
B: Empfehlung für oder gegen eine Maßnahme - verwendete Ausdrucksweise = sollte/sollte nicht
Evidenzlevel
2

Leitlinienadaptation:

Konsens
Starker Konsens
Literatur
[54] [55] [56] [57]
Evidenztabellen (1)HCC Kaffeekonsum

Kaffeekonsum ist bei Patienten mit chronischen Lebererkrankungen sowohl mit einem verminderten Risiko einer Fibrose-Progression als auch einer HCC-Risiko-Reduktion assoziiert [58]. Der protektive Effekt ist abhängig von der täglichen Kaffeemenge. Die Risikoreduktion für eine Progression der Lebererkrankung bzw. für das Versterben an einer chronischen Lebererkrankung ist sogar noch stärker ausgeprägt als die Reduktion des HCC-Risikos [55], [57]. Obwohl es sich bei den meisten Studien um retrospektive Kohortenstudien handelt und die Angaben zu Tassengröße, Kaffeeart und täglicher Menge nicht standardisiert sind, zeigen alle Metaanalysen einen mengenabhängigen, protektiven Effekt im Vergleich zu keinem Kaffeekonsum auf. Der Effekt erscheint am deutlichsten zu sein bei einem Kaffeekonsum von 3 oder mehr Tassen/Tag [55], [57], [59]. Die HCC-Risikoreduktion bei dieser täglichen Kaffeemenge liegt im Bereich von 41-50%. Der protektive Effekt von entkoffeiniertem Kaffee ist nicht so ausgeprägt wie der von koffeinhaltigem Kaffee [60]. Die Datenlage für einen protektiven Effekt von grünem Tee ist nicht eindeutig [61].

3.7 · Konsensbasierte Empfehlung · geprüft 2024

Bei Patienten mit chronischer Lebererkrankung und nichtinsulinabhängigem Diabetes mellitus sollte eine Behandlung mit Metformin geprüft werden, um das HCC-Risiko zu senken.

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Das HCC-Risiko bei Diabetikern, insbesondere bei gleichzeitigem Vorliegen eines metabolischen Syndroms, ist erhöht [8]. Vor dem Hintergrund der steigenden Inzidenz einer MASH und der Diabetes-Zunahme ist die Prävention eines HCC bei dieser Population extrem relevant. Etliche Arbeiten, meist retrospektive Kohortenstudien, haben eine Reduktion der HCC-Inzidenz bei Diabetikern unter Metformin-Therapie gezeigt [62], [63], [64]. Eine Therapie mit Metformin bei Diabetes und chronischer Lebererkrankung weist kein erhöhtes Toxizitätsrisiko einschließlich des Risikos für eine Laktat-Azidose unter Beachtung der Kontraindikationen (z.B. chronisches Nierenversagen mit höhergradig reduzierter glomerulärer Filtrationsrate < 30-60 ml/min/1,73 m2) auf [65], [66]. Eine Leberzirrhose ist kein Grund zur Beendigung einer Therapie mit Metformin. Patienten mit einer Leberzirrhose und Diabetes profitieren von einer Fortführung der Metformin-Therapie. In einer retrospektiven Kohortenstudie wurde eine Verdopplung der Überlebenszeit berichtet (11,8 Jahre vs. 6,0 Jahre bei einem Child-Pugh-Stadium A und 7,7 Jahre vs. 3,5 Jahre bei einem höheren Child-Pugh-Stadium) [67]. In dieser Kohortenstudie wurde bei keinem Patienten (n=172) eine Laktat-Azidose berichtet.

3.8 · Konsensbasierte Empfehlung · geprüft 2024

Patienten mit chronischen Lebererkrankungen sollen keinen Alkohol trinken.

Konsens
Konsens

Regelmäßiger Alkoholkonsum stellt einen wichtigen Kofaktor für die Entwicklung eines HCC dar. Patienten mit einer chronischen HCV-Infektion mit Leberzirrhose haben bei gleichzeitigem Alkoholkonsum ein deutlich höheres HCC-Risiko. In einer prospektiven Studie an 192 Patienten mit HCV-Zirrhose zeigte sich selbst bei leichtem bis moderatem Alkoholkonsum (median 15 g/Tag) verglichen mit einer Abstinenz eine kumulative 5-Jahres-HCC-Inzidenz von 23,8 % vs. 10,6 %. Für Patienten mit SVR lag die 5-Jahres-HCC-Inzidenz bei 2,0 % verglichen mit 21,7 % ohne SVR. Das niedrigste Risiko wiesen Patienten mit SVR und Abstinenz auf (0 %), gefolgt von Patienten mit SVR ohne Abstinenz (6,2 %). Bei Patienten ohne SVR und Abstinenz lag das Risiko bei 15,9 % und bei Patienten ohne SVR, die weiter Alkohol tranken bei 29,2 % [68]. Bei Vorliegen einer MASH-Zirrhose und moderatem Alkoholkonsum (≤ 2 alkoholische Getränke/Tag oder 3-6 alkoholische Getränke am Wochenende; ab 10 g bei Frauen und 20 g bei Männern als Metabolische Dysfunktion-assoziierte steatotische Lebererkrankung mit erhöhtem Alkoholgebrauch auch MetALD bezeichnet [69]) steigt das HCC-Risiko ebenfalls erheblich (Faktor 3,6) [70].

Unter Alkoholabstinenz wird bei Vorhandensein einer chronischen Lebererkrankung der Krankheitsverlauf und das Überleben günstig beeinflusst [71].

Weitere Lebensstilmodifikationen zur HCC-Risikoreduktion beinhalten bei adipösen Patienten mit MASLD eine gewichtsreduzierende Ernährungsumstellung mit dem Ziel einer nachhaltigen Gewichtsreduktion, regelmäßige körperliche Aktivität sowie bei schwerer Adipositas (BMI  ≥ 35) und Versagen einer Gewichtsreduktion die Diskussion bzgl. einer bariatrischen Operation. Medikamente zur Behandlung der MASLD oder MASH sind derzeit nicht zugelassen [26], [27].  

3.1.2.3 Tertiäre Prävention

3.9 · Konsensbasierte Empfehlung · geprüft 2024

Patienten mit chronischer Hepatitis B-Virusinfektion und HCC sollte eine antivirale Therapie angeboten werden.

Konsens
Konsens

Patienten mit chronischer HBV und HCC überleben länger mit einer antiviralen Therapie. Bei chirurgisch behandelten Patienten, die eine antivirale Therapie erhielten, zeigte sich nach 1, 3 und 5 Jahren ein deutlich längeres krankheitsfreies Überleben (91,6%, 69,5% und 55% vs. 80,2%, 56% und 44,2%) und auch Gesamtüberleben (99,6%, 93,5% und 87% vs. 96,1%, 80,5% und 61,3%) verglichen mit Patienten, die keine antivirale Therapie erhielten [72].

Patienten mit chronischer HBV und HCC, die mittels transarterieller Chemoembolisation behandelt werden, überleben ebenfalls länger, wenn vor Therapiebeginn eine antivirale Therapie eingeleitet wird [73]. Das 10-Jahresüberleben betrug in einer koreanischen Kohorten-Studie bei Patienten mit prophylaktischer HBV-Therapie 26,5% vs. 12,8% bei Patienten ohne prophylaktische antivirale Therapie. Patienten, die mit Entecavir oder Tenofovir behandelt wurden, überlebten länger als Patienten, die eine weniger effektive, antivirale Therapie erhielten.

Bei Patienten mit fortgeschrittenem HCC und HBV, die eine Therapie mit Sorafenib erhielten, ist eine gleichzeitige antivirale Behandlung ebenfalls mit einem längeren Überleben assoziiert (12,0 Monate vs. 8,3 Monate) [74].

3.10 · Konsensbasierte Empfehlung · geprüft 2024

Patienten mit chronischer Hepatitis C-Virusinfektion und HCC, bei denen eine kurativ intendierte Tumorbehandlung durchgeführt wird, soll eine DAAD-Behandlung angeboten werden.

Konsens
Starker Konsens

Das Überleben von Patienten mit HCV-assoziiertem HCC im Frühstadium (n=163), die nach kurativer Behandlung mittels Resektion oder Ablation mit einer DAAD-Therapie behandelt wurden, ist besser als ohne eine DAAD-Therapie (Hazard-Ratio 0,39) [75]. In dieser prospektiven, multizentrischen italienischen Kohortenstudie zeigte sich ebenfalls eine deutliche Risikoreduktion bzgl. einer hepatischen Dekompensation (Hazard-Ratio 0,32), das HCC-Rezidiv-Risiko wurde jedoch durch eine DAAD-Therapie nicht verbessert.

In einer kürzlich veröffentlichten, retrospektiven Kohortenstudie mit Zentren aus den USA, Japan, Süd-Korea und Taiwan konnte der durch eine DAAD-Therapie beschriebene Überlebensvorteil bestätigt werden [76]. Die meisten in dieser Arbeit erfassten Patienten wurden kurativ behandelt (n=453). Für diese Patienten mit SVR nach DAAD war ein 5-Jahresüberleben wesentlich wahrscheinlicher als für Patienten ohne DAAD-Therapie (92% vs. 71%). Bei Patienten, die eine palliative HCC-Behandlung erhielten (n=189), war der Effekt einer DAAD-Therapie ebenfalls deutlich (5-Jahresüberleben: 74% vs. 47% ohne DAAD-Therapie). Der Effekt war im Gesamtkollektiv unabhängig vom Grad der Leberfunktionsstörung (keine Zirrhose, Child-Pugh A oder Child-Pugh B Zirrhose) nachweisbar.

3.1.3 Vorsorgeuntersuchung

3.11 · Evidenzbasierte Empfehlung · geprüft 2024

Patienten mit Leberzirrhose im Stadium Child-Pugh A und B soll die Teilnahme an einer HCC-Früherkennung angeboten werden.

Empfehlungsgrad
A: Starke Empfehlung für oder gegen ein Maßnahme - verwendete Ausdrucksweise = soll/soll nicht
Evidenzlevel
2
Konsens
Starker Konsens
Literatur
[77]
Evidenztabellen (1)HCC Früherkennung
3.12 · Konsensbasierte Empfehlung · geprüft 2024

Patienten mit Leberzirrhose, die zur Lebertransplantation gelistet sind, soll die Teilnahme an einer HCC-Früherkennung angeboten werden.

Konsens
Starker Konsens

Der Nutzen und die Praktikabilität einer HCC-Früherkennung ist von verschiedenen Faktoren abhängig, wie z.B. dem HCC-Risiko und der Akzeptanz der Zielpopulation, der Verfügbarkeit und Kosten geeigneter Testverfahren und der Verfügbarkeit und Effektivität einer Behandlung [78]. Das Ziel der HCC-Früherkennung ist es, die Erkrankung in einem frühen Stadium zu diagnostizieren und so die Mortalität durch effektive Behandlungsmethoden zu senken. Dies gilt auch für Patienten auf der Warteliste für eine Lebertransplantation. Da Patienten mit einem Leberversagen bei Leberzirrhose im Stadium Child-Pugh > B 8 Punkte, die nicht für eine Lebertransplantation geeignet sind, nicht therapiefähig sind, ist eine Früherkennung in dieser Situation nicht sinnvoll [79].

Für alle anderen Patienten mit Leberzirrhose oder deutlich erhöhtem Risiko ist eine Früherkennung sinnvoll [5], [20], [34].

Aufgrund einer erhöhten HCC-Inzidenz bei kaukasischen Patienten mit chronischer HBV-Infektion und PAGE-B-Score ≥ 10 ist für diese Patienten auch ohne Leberzirrhose eine Früherkennung wichtig. Eine Früherkennung bei Patienten mit einer fortgeschrittenen Leberfibrose anderer Ursachen (siehe Kapitel 3.1.1.) erscheint ebenfalls sinnvoll, prospektive Daten zum Nutzen einer Früherkennung fehlen jedoch noch. Neben dem PAGE-B-Score gibt es viele weitere Scores, u.a. modified PAGE-B, modified REACH-B, CAMD, aMAP, HCC-RESCUE, AASL-HCC, Toronto HCC Risk Index, PLAN-B, APA-B, CAGE-B, and SAGE-B.

Eine einfache Risikoeinschätzung ist mit dem aMAP (age, male, albumin, bilirubin, platelets)-Risiko Score möglich. Patienten mit einem niedrigen, mittleren oder hohen aMAP-Score wiesen ein kumulatives 3 bzw. 5 Jahres-HCC-Risiko von 0 bzw. 0,8%, 1,5 bzw. 4,8% und 8,1 bzw. 19,9% auf [80]. Diese Ergebnisse wurden in einer britischen als auch einer japanischen Kohorte bestätigt [81].

3.13 · Evidenzbasierte Empfehlung · geprüft 2024

Im Rahmen der HCC-Früherkennung soll alle 6 Monate eine Ultraschalluntersuchung der Leber durchgeführt werden.

Empfehlungsgrad
A: Starke Empfehlung für oder gegen ein Maßnahme - verwendete Ausdrucksweise = soll/soll nicht
Evidenzlevel
2
Konsens
Starker Konsens
Literatur
[77] [82] [83]
Evidenztabellen (1)HCC Früherkennung
3.14 · Evidenzbasierte Empfehlung · geprüft 2024

Die Früherkennung kann durch eine AFP-Bestimmung ergänzt werden.

Empfehlungsgrad
0: offene Empfehlung (Option) bzgl. einer Maßnahme - verwendete Ausdrucksweise = kann
Evidenzlevel
1
Konsens
Starker Konsens
Literatur
[84]
Evidenztabellen (1)HCC Früherkennung
3.15 · Evidenzbasierte Empfehlung · geprüft 2024

Bei Patienten mit chronischer Lebererkrankung sollte das Fibrosestadium wiederholt erhoben werden, um das HCC-Risiko besser einzuschätzen.

Empfehlungsgrad
B: Empfehlung für oder gegen eine Maßnahme - verwendete Ausdrucksweise = sollte/sollte nicht
Evidenzlevel
3
Konsens
Starker Konsens
Literatur
[33] [85]
Evidenztabellen (1)HCC PAGE-B, Fib-4

Eine HCC-Früherkennung kann zu einer früheren Tumordiagnose und somit zu einer Verbesserung der Überlebenszeit bei Patienten mit Leberzirrhose beitragen. Für Patienten mit chronischer Hepatitis B liegt eine randomisierte Studie vor, die eine Senkung der Mortalität für Patienten mit HCC-Früherkennung um 37 % im Vergleich zu keiner Früherkennung zeigte [77]. Für Patienten mit anderen Grunderkrankungen liegen keine randomisierten Studien, jedoch eine Vielzahl an Kohortenstudien vor, die einen ähnlichen Nutzen für das Gesamtüberleben aufzeigten [86]. Aufgrund dieser Datenlage wird in allen Leitlinien eine sonographische HCC-Früherkennung in 6- monatlichem Intervall empfohlen.

Die Sonographie ist eine Technik zur Früherkennung. Im Rahmen der HCC-Früherkennung ist die Durchführung einer qualitätsgesicherten Ultraschalluntersuchung wünschenswert. Ein verdächtiger Befund erfordert eine weitere Abklärung mittels MRT/CT.

Die Früherkennung des HCC mit alleiniger Sonographie ist unbefriedigend. Obwohl in den EASL- und AASLD-Leitlinien keine AFP-Bestimmung empfohlen wird, zeigte eine Metaanalyse, dass die Sensitivität der Früherkennung durch eine zusätzliche AFP-Bestimmung erhöht wird [84].

Weitere Tumormarker (AFP-L3, DCP, PIVKA-II) befinden sich in der klinischen Entwicklung [87][88]. Insbesondere für PIVKA-II belegen eine Reihe retrospektiver Validierungsstudien das Potenzial zur Früherkennung von Hepatozellulären Karzinomen bei Risikopatienten mit HBV Infektion oder Zirrhose sowie als Marker von Tumorrezidiven nach Therapie [89][90][91][92]. Der GALAD (gender, age, AFP-L3, AFP und DCP)-Score wurde jüngst in einer Vielzahl retrospektiver aber auch prospektiver Fall-Kontroll-Studien zur HCC-Detektion untersucht und war der alleinigen AFP-Bestimmung immer deutlich überlegen. In einer deutschen, multizentrischen Fall-Kontroll-Studie bei Patienten mit einem HCC im Frühstadium auf dem Boden einer MASH zeigte sich eine Sensitivität des GALAD-Scores von 68 % und eine Spezifität von 98 %. Es bestand hierbei kein Unterschied bzgl. der HCC-Detektion bei Patienten mit und ohne Zirrhose [93].

Eine US-amerikanische monozentrische Fall-Kontroll-Studie zeigte sogar eine Sensitivität des GALAD-Scores von 91 % und eine Spezifität von 85 %. In dieser Studie wurde durch zusätzliche Sonographie (GALADUS) die Sensitivität auf 95 % und die Spezifität auf 91 % gesteigert [94]. In einer deutschen multizentrischen Fall-Kontroll-Studie mit Patienten mit HCC auf dem Boden einer chronischen HBV oder HCV zeigte sich eine Sensitivität von 77 bzw. 89 % bei einer Spezifität von 95 % [95]. Die derzeit größte Studie zum Einsatz des GALAD-Scores im Rahmen der HCC-Detektion bzw. Früherkennung wurde in China durchgeführt. An 5 Zentren erfolgte die Durchführung einer Fall-Kontroll-Studie (n= 602) bei Patienten mit gesichertem HCC (hiervon 34 % im BCLC Stadium 0-A). Bei Patienten im frühen HCC-Stadium (BCLC 0-A) zeigte sich eine Sensitivität des GALAD-Scores von 85 % bei einer Spezifität von 73 % [96]. Mittlerweile liegen jedoch auch die Ergebnisse zweier prospektiver Fall-Kontroll-Studien vor. Im Rahmen der Veteran Affairs-Studie wurde eine Kohorte von 534 Patienten prospektiv untersucht. Innerhalb von 24 Monaten wurde bei 50 Patienten ein HCC (hiervon ein Stadium BCLC 0-A bei 68 %) diagnostiziert. In dieser Studie lag die Sensitivität des GALAD-Scores bei 64-71 % (HCC Detektion unabhängig vom Stadium) bzw. bei 54-63 % (Frühstadium). Problematisch war die Rate an falsch-positiven Befunden. Diese lag bei bis zu 23 %. Nach Justierung des Scores auf eine Falsch-Detektionsrate von 10 % sank die Sensitivität auf 42-47 % und unterschied sich nicht wesentlich von den Ergebnissen des HES (HCC early detection screening)-Scores oder der alleinigen AFP-L3-Bestimmung [97]. Die jüngste Arbeit zum GALAD-Score wurde von Singal et al. publiziert. Hierbei handelt es sich um eine prospektive Kohortenstudie mit 397 Patienten mit Leberzirrhose von denen im Verlauf 42 ein HCC entwickelten. In dieser Arbeit wurde die Spezifität des GALAD-Scores auf 90 % eingestellt. Hierbei ergab sich für eine einmalige GALAD-Score Bestimmung eine Sensitivität von 5 5% und im Falle wiederholter Bestimmungen von 67 % [98]. Das Hauptproblem des GALAD-Scores ist derzeit die fehlende Durchführbarkeit auf einer automatisierten Laborstraße. Kürzlich veröffentlichte Daten zum Einsatz eines automatisierten PIVKA-II Assays zeigten eine Sensitivität von 87 % bei einer Spezifität von 84 % [99]. Ein vereinfachter Algorithmus basierend auf Geschlecht, Alter, AFP und PIVKA-II (GAAD-Score), der auf einer automatisierten Laborstraße bestimmt werden kann, wird derzeit etabliert.

Der Multi-Target HCC Bluttest (mt-HBT) ist ein weiterer Biomarker-Test, der für die HCC-Früherkennung validiert wird. Der Algorithmus basiert auf der Analyse der methylierten Biomarker HOXA1, TSPYL5 und B3GALT6 sowie dem AFP-Wert und dem Geschlecht. Der mt-HBT Test zeigte in einer retrospektiven Fall-Kohorten-Studie verglichen mit dem GALAD-Score eine höhere Sensitivität (71 % vs. 41 %) bei gleicher Spezifität von 90 % [100]


Da die Diagnose einer MASH eine präkanzeröse Hepatopathie darstellt mit Entwicklung von Hepatozellulären Karzinomen (HCC) und seltener auch intrahepatischen Cholangiokarzinomen sollte eine entsprechende Surveillance erfolgen [101], [102]. Die HCC-Inzidenz wird bei MASH Patienten ohne Leberzirrhose mit 0,02 % pro Jahr angegeben und steigt bei Vorliegen einer Leberzirrhose auf 1,5 % pro Jahr an [101].

Mithilfe nichtinvasiver Marker bzw. Untersuchungen zur Beurteilung der Lebersteifigkeit kann eine fortgeschrittene Leberfibrose schon heute nichtinvasiv festgestellt werden [103]. Elastographie-basierte Verfahren können das Ausmaß fibrotischer Veränderungen des Leberparenchyms durch Messung der Lebersteifigkeit bzw. Elastizität quantitativ erfassen [25]. Bei Patienten mit nichtalkoholischer Fettlebererkrankung (MASLD) kann im Laufe der Zeit eine Progression mit Entwicklung einer Leberzirrhose eintreten [104].

Der MASLD-Fibrose Score erlaubt eine nichtinvasive Abgrenzung von Patienten mit ausgeprägter Fibrose von Patienten ohne ausgeprägte Fibrose [28]. Hierdurch lassen sich eine Vielzahl von Leberbiopsien zur Feststellung bzw. eines Ausschlusses einer Leberfibrose vermeiden. Der Score basiert auf demographischen Patientendaten (Alter, Größe, Gewicht, Vorhandensein einer Kohlenhydratstoffwechselstörung/eines Diabetes) und vier allgemein verfügbaren, kostengünstigen Laborparametern (GOT/AST, GPT/ALT, Thrombozytenzahl, Serum-Albumin). Alternativ kann auch der Fibrose-4 (FIB-4) Score verwendet werden, der bei vergleichbarer Aussagekraft neben dem Alter nur Thrombozyten, GOT und GPT enthält [105]. Zur Erfassung von Fibrosegraden, nekroinflammatorischer Aktivität und ballonierender Zellschädigung ist die Leberbiopsie allerdings den nichtinvasiven Scoring-Systemen überlegen [106].

3.2 Histopathologische und molekulare Diagnostik

3.16 · Konsensbasierte Empfehlung · modifiziert 2024

In der nicht-zirrhotischen Leber soll eine bioptische Sicherung erfolgen.

In der zirrhotischen Leber in der kurativen Situation bei unklarem Konstrastmittelverhalten oder in der palliativen Situation sollte ein bioptisches Verfahren eingesetzt werden.

Konsens
Konsens
ÄnderungshinweisVor einer palliativen Therapie oder in der kurativen Situation bei unklarem Kontrastmittelverhalten in zwei unabhängigen Bildgebungen sollte ein bioptisches Verfahren eingesetzt werden.

Die Leberbiopsie ist eine wichtige diagnostische Maßnahme zur Diagnosestellung des Hepatozellulären Karzinoms (Abbildung 1: Diagnostikalgorithmus); in der nicht-zirrhotischen Leber ist die histologische Sicherung vor definitiven therapeutischen Maßnahmen obligat. Bei klinischen Studien sollte immer eine histologische Sicherung der Diagnose durchgeführt werden. Zudem ermöglicht die Biopsie die Begleitforschung im Rahmen klinischer Studien und kann im Einzelfall auch den Einschluss in entitäts-übergreifende (Biomarker-gesteuerte) klinische Studien ermöglichen. Die Histologiegewinnung mittels 16-18 Gauge Biopsienadel ist der Zytologie/Feinnadelaspiration vorzuziehen, da die diagnostisch verlässliche Typisierung hochdifferenzierter hepatozellulärer Tumoren den erhaltenen Gewebekontext erfordert und da nur so in diagnostisch kritischen Fällen ausreichend Gewebe für zusätzliche immunhistologische, molekularpathologische oder ggf. auch konsiliarische Untersuchungen zur Verfügung steht.

In der zirrhotischen Leber ist die Eintrittswahrscheinlichkeit eines HCC gegenüber der nicht-zirrhotischen Leber deutlich erhöht, was jedoch auch für das intrahepatische Cholangiokarzinom gilt. Da die bildgebenden Eigenschaften der verschiedenen Subtypen des HCC und des intrahepatischen Cholangiokarzinoms signifikant überlappen, aber die differentialtherapeutischen Optionen sich erheblich unterscheiden, besteht die zunehmende Notwendigkeit einer sicheren Unterscheidung von HCC und iCCA.

Die Komplikationsrate der Biopsie eines HCC ist gering und umfasst das Risiko einer Blutung und der sog. Stichkanalabsiedlung. Geringe, nicht behandlungsbedürftige Blutungen treten in etwa 3-4% der Fälle auf während transfusionsbedürftige Blutungen selten sind (0,5 %) [107]. Metaanalysen haben gezeigt, dass Stichkanalabsiedlungen ebenfalls selten sind  (2,7 %), typischerweise spät auftreten (im Mittel nach 17 Monaten) und in der Regel gut therapierbar sind [108], [109]. Sie haben keinen negativen Einfluss auf das Überleben und den Erfolg der therapeutischen Maßnahmen [109], [110].

3.2.1 Typisierung des Hepatozellulären Karzinoms

3.17 · Konsensbasierte Empfehlung · geprüft 2024

Die Typisierung des HCCs soll sich nach der aktuellen WHO-Klassifikation richten.

Hierbei sollten zum einen Sonderformen (z.B. fibrolamelläres HCC und mischdifferenzierte Tumoren (kombiniertes HCC/iCCA)) und wenn möglich auch das frühe HCC vom progredienten HCC und prämalignen Läsionen unterschieden werden.

Es sollte eine sichere Unterscheidung von Sonderformen des intrahepatischen Cholangiokarzinoms, Lebermetastasen und auch benignen Lebertumoren erfolgen.

Konsens
Konsens

Die Klassifikation maligner Lebertumoren beruht auf histologischen Kriterien, sodass die Histopathologie die Basis der HCC-Diagnose und ihrer Differenzialdiagnosen darstellt. Die Kriterien der aktuellen Typisierung maligner Lebertumoren sind in der 5. Ausgabe der WHO-Klassifikation der Tumoren des Verdauungstraktes zusammengefasst [111]. Mittlerweile werden verschiedene, teils seltene morpho-molekulare Subtypen des HCC unterschieden, die sich biologisch und klinisch unterschiedlich verhalten. Dies hat Einfluss auf die Prognose und die bildgebenden Eigenschaften. Bei gesichertem HCC beeinflusst die Subtypisierung derzeit noch nicht das konkrete therapeutische Vorgehen.

Therapeutisch relevant ist die Unterscheidung des HCCs von seinen malignen Differenzialdiagnosen. Sobald sich neben der hepatozellulären Differenzierung eine biliäre Differenzierungskomponente zeigt, ist die Diagnose eines kombinierten HCC/(i)CCA zu stellen, für das formal weder die Therapieleitlinien des HCC noch des CCA gelten. Die Typisierung der Lebertumoren erfolgt primär histologisch; falls erforderlich kann die Anwendung linientypischer immunhistologischer Marker helfen.

Entscheidend ist die Histologie in der Differenzialdiagnose hochdifferenzierter hepatozellulärer Tumoren. Zu berücksichtigen sind hierbei neben dem hochdifferenzierten HCC seine Vorläuferläsionen, die Dysplastischen Knoten [112], sowie das Hepatozelluläre Adenom und die Fokale Noduläre Hyperplasie. Während  sog. frühe HCCs (<2 cm Durchmesser, hochdifferenziert, nicht umkapselt) kein signifikantes Metastasierungsrisiko tragen, können beim sog. progredienten (hochdifferenzierten) HCC intra- und extrahepatische Metastasen auftreten [113]. In der Dignitätsbestimmung können immunhistologische und molekularpathologische Marker helfen (s. dort).

3.2.2 Histopathologische Untersuchungen und Beurteilung eines Resektats oder einer Biopsie

3.18 · Konsensbasierte Empfehlung · geprüft 2024

Die Bearbeitung und Befundung eines Resektats oder Explantats soll die Ausdehnung des Tumors (Staging) gemäß der aktuellen TNM-Klassifikation, seinen Typ (Typing) und Differenzierungsgrad (Grading) und den Status des Resektatrandes (R-Klassifikation) sowie den Status der nichttumorösen Leber ermitteln.

Konsens
Starker Konsens

Die Bearbeitung und Befundung von Resektionen oder Transplantationen bei HCC sollten die Empfehlungen des International Collaboration on Cancer Reporting (ICCR) berücksichtigen [114].

Das histologische Staging wird an Leberteilresektaten und der Explantatleber durchgeführt und richtet sich nach der jeweils aktuellen Auflage der TNM-Klassifikation (derzeit 8. Auflage von 2014) und ihren offiziellen Erläuterungen und hat prognostische Relevanz. Hierbei sind Zahl und Größe der Tumorherde sowie ein evtl. Gefäßeinbruch relevant. Diese Parameter müssen durch sorgfältige makroskopische und histologische Aufarbeitung erfasst und im Befund dargestellt werden. Aus Befunden von explantierten Lebern müssen die transplantationsrelevanten Kriterien ableitbar sein, da sie wichtige Informationen für die Beurteilung des Rekurrenzrisikos darstellen.  Klinische Stagingsysteme, wie BCLC, CLIP oder JIS, können im histologischen Befund nicht allein dargestellt werden.

Für das Tumorgrading waren international verschiedene Gradingsysteme in Gebrauch. Besonders eingesetzt werden als 4-stufige Systeme das sog. Edmondson-Steiner Grading [115] und das AFIP-Grading [116], während neuere Vorschläge ein 3-stufiges Grading präferieren [114]; ein weltweiter Konsens bestand nicht. Unabhängig vom eingesetzten Gradingsystem hat das Grading nach Resektion und Transplantation prognostische Relevanz. Als Synthese der verschiedenen Grading-Systeme und zur Vereinheitlichung sollte gemäß der geltenden WHO-Klassifikation deren 3-gliedriges Grading eingesetzt werden [111].

3.19 · Konsensbasierte Empfehlung · geprüft 2024

Wenn die Diagnose eines HCCs nicht mithilfe der konventionellen Histologie gestellt werden kann, sollen in Abhängigkeit vom histopathologischen Erscheinungsbild weitere, insbesondere immunhistologische und/oder molekularpathologische Untersuchungen zur Sicherung der Diagnose eingesetzt werden.

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Prinzipiell kann die Diagnose eines HCC bei Vorliegen typischer histologischer Merkmale der Malignität (erhebliche Atypie, interstitielle und/oder vaskuläre Invasion, grobe trabekuläre Architekturstörung) und der hepatozytären Differenzierung (v.a. Galleproduktion, gut definiertes, kräftig gefärbtes Zytoplasma, rundliche Kerne mit prominenten Nukleolen, trabekuläres Wachstum) anhand der Histologie diagnostiziert werden [111]. Die färberische Darstellung des Retikulinfasernetzes hilft, die (gestörte) Architektur des Tumors und evtl. die Reduktion des Retikulinfasernetzes darzustellen. Die Diagnose eines HCCs ist jedoch einem erheblichen Teil der Fälle aus verschiedenen Gründen anspruchsvoll, so dass die definitive Diagnosestellung zusätzliche immunhistologische und molekularpathologische Zusatzuntersuchungen erfordert. In der Abgrenzung zu anderen Malignomen oder auch zu mischdifferenzierten Leberkarzinomen (kombiniertes HCC/CCA) kann die immunhistologische Darstellung der hepatozellulären Liniendifferenzierung bzw. der Liniendifferenzierung mutmaßlicher Differentialdiagnosen helfen. Als hepatozytäre Marker sind HepPar1 und Arginase 1 zu empfehlen, deren Expressionsmuster nicht deckungsgleich sind und deren kombinierte Anwendung zur Erhöhung der Sensitivität hilfreich sein kann (zur Frage biliärer Marker s. dort). Andere linientypische Marker (z.B. AFP, kanalikuläres CD10-Muster) werden wegen geringerer Spezifität bzw. Sensitivität nicht als primäre Marker empfohlen. In Einzelfällen können spezifische molekularpathologische Untersuchungen (z.B. Nachweis der DNAJB1-PRKACA-Translokation beim fibrolamellären HCC oder der Alternativen Telomerenverlängerung beim chromophoben HCC) die präzise histopathologische Typisierung unterstützen bzw. sichern.

In der Dignitätsbestimmung können immunhistologische und molekularpathologische Marker helfen (s. dort), insbesondere wenn eindeutige histologische Malignitätskriterien (interstitielle oder vaskuläre Invasion, eindeutige trabekuläre Architekturstörung) nicht erfasst sind.  Das immunhistologische Markerpanel aus Glypican 3, HSP70 und Glutaminsynthetase hat bei etwa 70% Sensitivität fast 100% Spezifität im Malignitätsnachweis [117], [118]. Weitere immunhistologische Marker können in fraglichen Fällen ggf. unterstützen. Mutationen im hTERT Promotor treten häufig und früh im Transformationsprozess auf und ihre Bestimmung kann die Malignitätsaussage unterstützen.

3.2.3 Molekulare Diagnostik

3.20 · Konsensbasierte Empfehlung · modifiziert 2024

Prädiktive molekulare Analysen sind in der regulären Diagnostik noch nicht erforderlich, können aber zur erweiterten Therapieplanung eingesetzt werden.

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ÄnderungshinweisMolekularpathologische Untersuchungen können zur Unterstützung der Tumortypisierung und Dignitätsbestimmung von hepatozellulären Tumoren eingesetzt werden. Prädiktive molekulare Analysen sind in der regulären Diagnostik noch nicht erforderlich, können aber zur erweiterten Therapieplanung eingesetzt werden.

Die mit der HCC-Entwicklung verbundenen molekularen Veränderungen sind in vielfachen Untersuchungen charakterisiert. Hierunter sind genetische, epigenetische und auch transkriptionelle und posttranslationale Veränderungen. Anhaltspunkte für eine signifikante Beteiligung von Keimbahnveränderungen an der HCC-Entstehung oder eine wesentliche Beteiligung des HCC an angeborenen Tumorsyndromen fehlen.

Unter diesen molekularen Veränderungen im HCC finden sich neben bislang therapeutischen Konzepten nicht zugängigen Veränderungen auch solche, die prinzipiell einer gezielten molekular gesteuerten Therapie zugängig wären (z.B. MET-Aktivierung, KRAS-Mutation, Aktivierung der FGF19-FGFR4-KLB-Achse, PD-(L)1-Aktivierung, Mikrosatelliten-Instabilität (selten), hohe Tumormutationslast). Sie sind entweder noch in laufenden Studien eingebunden bzw. entsprechende Studien haben nicht zu entsprechenden Therapiezulassungen in Europa/Deutschland geführt. Bezüglich der derzeit in Deutschland bestehenden entitätsübergreifenden Zulassung für NTRK-Inhibitoren ist festzuhalten, dass bisher kein Vorkommen der für die Therapie erforderlichen NTRK-Translokationen beim HCC gezeigt werden konnte, so dass keine fassbare Testindikation besteht. Anders als bei anderen Tumorarten besteht damit derzeit noch keine definitive Indikation im Rahmen der regelhaften diagnostischen Versorgung therapiesteuernde molekulare Marker beim HCC zu testen.

Dennoch kann die molekularpathologische Testung therapiesteuernder Marker beim  HCC unter bestimmten Bedingungen sinnvoll sein. Dies ist insbesondere in zentrumsbasierten Ansätzen zu erwägen. Hier spielt die Einschleusung in durch molekulare Marker gesteuerte HCC-Studien oder auch entitätsübergreifende Studien eine wichtige Rolle. Wichtig ist dieses Vorgehen auch bei Erschöpfung leitliniengerechter Therapieoptionen, wobei hier im Rahmen von spezifischen Strukturen (insbesondere molekulare Tumorboards) ein individueller Heilversuch eine Therapieoption darstellen kann.

3.3 Bildgebende Diagnostik

3.3.1 Anhand welcher Verfahren und Befunde kann ein HCC mittels Bildgebung diagnostiziert werden?

Die Diagnose eines HCCs basiert auf kontrastverstärkten bildgebenden Untersuchungen und/oder histologischen Analysen. Der Diagnosealgorithmus eines Patienten mit einem HCC-verdächtigen Knoten ist im Diagnostikalgorithmus dargestellt.

Das HCC soll primär anhand seiner typischen Kontrastmitteldynamik mit arterieller Hypervaskularisation und Auswaschen in der portalvenösen und venösen (ggf. spätvenösen) Phase im kontrastverstärkten MRT bei Raumforderungen mit einem Durchmesser von > 1 cm diagnostiziert werden [119].

Mehrere Studien haben die diagnostische Genauigkeit der mehrphasigen Computertomographie mit magnetresonanztomographischen Untersuchungen mittels hepatobiliärem Kontrastmittel verglichen [120], [121], [122], [123], [124], [125], [126], [127]. Diese Studien konnten eine höhere Sensitivität bei vergleichbarer Spezifität für das MRT im Vergleich zum CT zeigen. Insbesondere bei kleineren Läsionen waren die Ergebnisse signifikant unterschiedlich zugunsten des MRTs.

3.21 · Konsensbasierte Empfehlung · geprüft 2024

Die Sonographie kann zur initialen Einschätzung im Risikokollektiv verwendet werden.

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3.22 · Evidenzbasierte Empfehlung · geprüft 2024

Bildgebend soll das HCC in der zirrhotischen Leber anhand seiner typischen Kontrastmitteldynamik mit arterieller Hypervaskularisation und Auswaschen in der portalvenösen und spätvenösen Phase im kontrastverstärkten MRT oder der Kontrastmittelsonographie (CEUS) diagnostiziert werden.

Zur lokalen Ausbreitungsdiagnostik soll eine dynamische MRT erfolgen.

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Neue Literatur: Chen 2022 (LoE 2)Fraquelli 2022 (LoE 1)Kim 2022 (LoE 1)Schellhaas 2021 (LoE 2)Schellhaas 2021 (LoE 2)Strobel 2021 (LoE 2)Van der Pol 2022 (LoE 1)Zhou 2022 (LoE 1)

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Literatur
[128] [122] [129] [130] [131] [132]
Evidenztabellen (3)HCC Diagnostik CEUS; HCC Bildgebende Diagnostik; HCC Ausbreitungsdiagnostik

Di Martino et al. [129] verglichen in einer prospektiven Studie die mehrphasigen CT mit der MRT unter Verwendung von dynamischen Sequenzen und dynamischen Sequenzen plus hepatobiliärer Phase. Hier weist die Kombination der dynamischen plus hepatobiliären Phasen in der MRT eine signifikant höhere Sensitivität und einen besseren negativen Vorhersagewert als die mehrphasige CT und die dynamische Phasen-MRT allein auf. Somit sollte bei ausgeprägter Zirrhose und bei unklaren Befunden eine MRT mit hepatobiliärem Kontrastmittel zur Analyse der Spätphase ergänzt werden.

In einer aktuellen Meta-Analyse wurde der Vorteil der dynamischen MRT gegenüber der kontrastverstärkten Computertomographie (CT) noch einmal aufgezeigt [133]. Insgesamt wurden 10 Studien mit 1.333 Patienten als geeignet für die Aufnahme in diese Meta-Analyse erachtet. Die dynamische (DCE) MRT mit extrazellulärem Kontrastmittel zeigte eine höhere Sensitivität bei der Erkennung von HCC als die kontrastverstärkte CT (0,77 vs. 0,63; p < 0,01). Die DCE-MRT bot eine höhere Sensitivität und Genauigkeit als die kontrastverstärkte CT bei der Erkennung eines HCCs, insbesondere bei Läsionen mit einer Größe von < 20 mm. Der Unterschied in der Spezifität zwischen der DCE-MRI und kontrastverstärkter CT war jedoch statistisch nicht signifikant (0,93 vs. 0,94; p = 0,25).

Die Daten aus den neueren prospektiven Studien zeigen eine hohe diagnostische Genauigkeit der Kontrastmittelsonographie. Bei 395 HCC-Risikopatienten erzielte die Kontrastmittelsonographie verglichen zum Goldstandard Histologie eine Sensitivität von 94% bei einer Spezifität von 65% (79% bei Anwendung standardisierter CEUS-Algorithmen) und einem positiv-prädiktiven Wert von 93% [132][131][130]. Das Schlüsselkriterium für die nicht-invasive HCC-Diagnostik in der Kontrastmittelsonographie stellt dabei das arterielle Hyperenhancement mit oder ohne nachfolgendes Kontrastmittel-Washout dar. Dies ermöglicht eine Unterscheidung zu intrahepatischen cholangiozellulären Karzinomen (iCCA) und Metastasen, bei denen sich so gut wie nie ein arterielles Hyperenhancement ohne Kontrastmittel-Washout zeigte [132]; zudem zeichnete sich das Auswaschen beim iCCA durch einen früheren Beginn und eine stärkere Intensität verglichen mit dem HCC aus.

Ein Vorteil der MRT ist, dass stets die gesamte Leber abgebildet ist, so dass weitere Herde detektiert werden können. Somit wird diese in der Empfehlung weiterhin als beste Bildgebung zur lokalen Ausbreitungsdiagnostik empfohlen.

3.23 · Konsensbasierte Empfehlung · modifiziert 2024

Ein triphasisches CT (spätarterielle/portalvenöse/spätvenöse Phase) oder CEUS sollte bei unklarem MRT-Befund oder Kontraindikationen für das MRT zur weiteren Diagnostik herangezogen werden.

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ÄnderungshinweisEin triphasisches CT und/oder CEUS sollte bei unklarem MRT-Befund oder Kontraindikationen für das MRT zur weiteren Diagnostik herangezogen werden.

In einer aktualisierten Meta-Analyse wurde die diagnostische Wertigkeit der LI-RADS 5-Kategorie (Liver Imaging Reporting and Data System, LR) für das hepatozelluläre Karzinom (HCC) unter Verwendung der LI-RADS-Version 2018 (v2018) evaluiert und Unterschiede zwischen dem Stellenwert der dynamischen MRT und CT analysiert [134]. Insgesamt wurden 48 Studien mit 9.031 Patienten und 7.216 HCCs in diese Meta-Analyse eingeschlossen. Die gepoolte Sensitivität und Spezifität von LR-5 Läsionen für die Diagnose von HCC unter Verwendung von LI-RADS v2018 betrug 66 % bzw. 91 %, wobei die DCE-MRT mit extrazellulärem Kontrastmittel eine höhere Sensitivität als die kontrastmittel-gestützte CT mit 77 % vs. 66 % (p = 0,023) zeigte.

Hierbei erfolgt üblicherweise die kontrastmittel-gestützte CT, wie unter anderem in den LI-RADS v2018 Guidelines empfohlen triphasisch [135][136]. Das CT der Leber soll hiernach im Rahmen der Primärdiagnose eine spätarterielle (nach 10-20 s), portalvenöse (60-80 s) und spätvenöse (2-5 min) Kontrastmittelphase beinhalten.

Das HCC ist kein hoch avider Tumor für FDG-PET, da die FDG-Speicherung in weniger als 40% der Fälle beobachtet wird [137] und die meisten gut differenzierten HCCs 18F-FDG-PET negativ sind. Andere Tracer wie z.B. 11C-Cholin steigern die Gesamterfassungsrate des PET/CTs. Die Sensitivität dieser Tracer können jedoch nicht mit der kontrastverstärkten MRT und CT verglichen werden [138]. Das PET/CT sollte aufgrund einer hohen Anzahl von falsch negativen Befunden somit nicht zur primären Diagnostik herangezogen werden. Dennoch kann in Einzelfällen die Untersuchung mittels18F-FDG-PET indiziert sein, da das Speicherverhalten einen potenziell prognostischen Wert zu besitzen und mit schlechter Prognose, erhöhtem Serum-Alpha-Fetoprotein und vaskulärer Invasion assoziiert zu sein scheint. Dieses könnte z.B. die Auswahl geeigneter Patienten für eine chirurgische Resektion oder zur Lebertransplantation erleichtern [139], [140]

3.3.2 Bildgebende Verfahren zum Staging des HCC

Sobald die Diagnose gestellt ist, ist die prognostische Beurteilung ein entscheidender Schritt in der Behandlung des Hepatozellulären Karzinoms (HCC).

3.24 · Konsensbasierte Empfehlung · geprüft 2024

Das Staging eines HCCs soll ein kontrastverstärktes CT des Thorax und des Abdomens beinhalten.

Falls das kontrastverstärkte MRT das gesamte Abdomen diagnostisch abdeckt, soll lediglich ein nativer CT-Thorax ergänzt werden.

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3.3.3 Diagnostikalgorithmus

Malignitätsverdächtige Leberrundherde sollen in einer therapierelevanten Konstellation unmittelbar abgeklärt werden, siehe auch Diagnosealgorithmus eines Patienten mit einer HCC-verdächtigen Raumforderung (Abbildung 1: Diagnostikalgorithmus).

Diagnostikalgorithmus HCC
Diagnostikalgorithmus HCC
3.25 · Evidenzbasierte Empfehlung · geprüft 2024

Unklare Leberherde < 1 cm sollten in 3 Monatsintervallen mittels des bestgeeigneten kontrastmittelverstärkten Schnittbildverfahrens kontrolliert werden.

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[141]
Evidenztabellen (1)HCC Bildgebende Diagnostik

Aktuellen Studien zufolge ist die Kontrastmittelsonographie (CEUS) hinsichtlich Sensitivität und Spezifität in der Diagnostik des HCC zur Kontrolle bei Risikopatienten geeignet [142]. Vorteile des CEUS sind dabei die rasche Verfügbarkeit und das Fehlen von Kontraindikationen (keine Nephrotoxizität, keine Einschränkung bei Schilddrüsenfunktionsstörung, weniger KM-allergische Reaktionen). Dem Problem der Untersucherabhängigkeit und Subjektivität in der Befundung bei der Bildgebung wird durch die Entwicklung standardisierter Diagnosealgorithmen für die Kontrastmittelsonographie Rechnung getragen (CEUS LI-RADS®, ESCULAP) [143]. Ersten Studien zufolge zeigen diese Diagnosealgorithmen eine gute diagnostische Genauigkeit und Untersucher-Übereinstimmung [144].

3.26 · Evidenzbasierte Empfehlung · geprüft 2024

Bei Leberherden ≥ 1 cm und untypischem Kontrastmittelverhalten sollte bei kurativer Behandlungsindikation eine zweite kontrastmittelverstärkte Bildgebung mittels CT und/oder CEUS erfolgen.

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[141]
Evidenztabellen (1)HCC Bildgebende Diagnostik
3.27 · Konsensbasierte Empfehlung · geprüft 2024

Bei Leberherden ≥ 1 cm und untypischem Kontrastmittelverhalten, bei denen kein kurativer Ansatz besteht, soll bei Indikation für eine tumorgerichtete Therapie eine Biopsie erfolgen.

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3.3.4 Staging Systeme (Clip, TNM, Okuda, BCLC etc.)

Sobald die Diagnose gestellt ist, ist die prognostische Beurteilung ein entscheidender Schritt in der Behandlung des Hepatozellulären Karzinoms. Die genaue Klassifikation soll eine Prognose und die Auswahl der am besten geeigneten Behandlungen für die Patienten ermöglichen.

Das Barcelona Clinic Liver Cancer (BCLC) Staging System wurde wiederholt validiert und wird für prognostische Vorhersagen und die Zuordnungen von geeigneten Behandlungen empfohlen [145]. Neben prognostischen Variablen im Zusammenhang mit Tumorstatus, Leberfunktion und Gesundheitsleistungsstatus beinhalten sie multiple in Kohorten- und randomisierten Studien eruierten Variablen.

3.28 · Evidenzbasierte Empfehlung · geprüft 2024

Für die klinische Entscheidungsfindung bei HCC sollen die Tumorlast, die Leberfunktion und der Leistungsstatus berücksichtigt werden.

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Literatur
[146] [147] [148] [149] [150] [151] [152] [153] [154] [5]
Evidenztabellen (1)HCC Staging-System

Das Hong-Kong-Staging System beinhaltet weitere Biomarker (Alpha-Fetoprotein (AFP), des-Gamma-Carboxyprothrombin (DCP) etc.) ist jedoch fast ausschließlich HBV bezogen und zudem existiert keine externe Validierung in westlichen Ländern, die seine Leistungsfähigkeit in anderen Populationen und allen Stadien der Erkrankung erfasst [155].

3.29 · Konsensbasierte Empfehlung · geprüft 2024

Zur Stratifizierung vor Operationen/Transplantationen soll ergänzend die TNM-Klassifikation verwendet werden.

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3.30 · Konsensbasierte Empfehlung · geprüft 2024

Bezüglich der bildmorphologischen Tumoraspekte sollen bildgebende Analyseverfahren verwendet werden, die die Vaskularität berücksichtigen.

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Für die Abschätzung der Tumorreduktion des Hepatozellulärem Karzinoms mittels CT wurden die mRECIST-Kriterien eingeführt. Über die, für den Therapieausgang wichtige Genauigkeit dieser Methode, liegen jedoch weiterhin nur wenige Daten vor.

Das Liver Imaging /Reporting and Data System (LI-RADS) standardisiert die Interpretation und Berichterstattung von bildgebenden Untersuchungen für Patienten mit einem erhöhten Risiko für die Entstehung eines Hepatozellulären Karzinoms. Für fokale Leberbeobachtungen weist es Kategorien (LR-1 bis 5, LR-M, LR-TIV) zu, die die relative Wahrscheinlichkeit der Benignität oder Malignität der jeweiligen Beobachtung widerspiegeln. Die zugeordneten Kategorien basieren auf Haupt- und Nebenbildmerkmalen, die vom American College of Radiology (ACR) entwickelt und in vielen Studien validiert wurden. Diese LI-RADS Übersicht fasst die relevanten CT- und MRT-Merkmale zusammen und stellt für Radiologen, die mit LI-RADS nicht vertraut sind, einen bildgestützten Ansatz für die Anwendung des Systems vor. Die weit verbreitete Anwendung von LI-RADS für die Berichterstattung würde dazu beitragen, die Variabilität zwischen den Radiologen zu verringern und die Kommunikation zwischen Radiologen, Hepatologen, Leberchirurgen und Onkologen zu verbessern, was zu einem verbesserten Patientenmanagement führen würde. Bis zum heutigen Zeitpunkt hat sich dieses System in Deutschland leider nicht flächendeckend durchgesetzt.

3.4 Operative und interventionelle Therapieverfahren

3.31 · Konsensbasierte Empfehlung · modifiziert 2024

Patienten mit einem Hepatozellulären Karzinom sollen vor einer Behandlung und bei Änderung der Therapiestrategie in einer interdisziplinären Tumorkonferenz vorgestellt werden.

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ÄnderungshinweisPatienten mit einem Hepatozellulären Karzinom sollen in einer interdisziplinären Tumorkonferenz vorgestellt werden.

Für das HCC ist eine Vielzahl unterschiedlicher Therapiemöglichkeiten verfügbar. Zur umfassenden Beurteilung der optimalen Therapiestrategie sind unterschiedliche Fachdisziplinen notwendig. Für einen Patient mit HCC soll daher eine interdisziplinäre Vorstellung in einer Tumorkonferenz unter der Berücksichtigung operativer, lokal-ablativer und systemtherapeutischer Möglichkeiten erfolgen. Die Beurteilung der Möglichkeit einer Ablation oder der Resektabilität soll mit einem in der interventionellen Onkologie erfahrenen Radiologen und einem in der hepatobiliären Chirurgie erfahrenen Chirurgen erfolgen. Aufgrund der Komplexität der Erkrankung soll die Tumorkonferenz zusätzlich mit Hepato-/Onkologen, Pathologen und Radioonkologen besetzt sein.

3.4.1 Operative Therapieverfahren

3.4.1.1 Lebertransplantation

3.32 · Konsensbasierte Empfehlung · geprüft 2024

Patienten mit einem kurativ behandelbaren Hepatozellulären Karzinom sollten in einem Lebertransplantationszentrum vorgestellt werden.

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3.33 · Konsensbasierte Empfehlung · modifiziert 2024

Geeignete Patienten mit Leberzirrhose und einem irresektablen HCC innerhalb der Mailand-Kriterien (BCLC A) sollen für eine Lebertransplantation evaluiert werden.

Auch bei formal resektablen oder grenzwertig resektablen HCC-Befunden in Zirrhose kann innerhalb der Mailand-Kriterien eine Indikation zur Transplantation bestehen.

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ÄnderungshinweisGeeignete Patienten mit Leberzirrhose und einem irresektablen HCC innerhalb der Mailand-Kriterien (BCLC A) sollen für eine Lebertransplantation evaluiert werden.

Die Lebertransplantation für Patienten mit einem auf die Leber begrenzten Tumor ist langfristig mit den geringsten Rezidivraten und dem besten Gesamtüberleben (> 5 Jahre) verbunden [156], [157]. Durch Fortschritte in der chirurgischen, interventionellen und medikamentösen Therapie können heute bei resektablen Befunden immer bessere Überlebensraten erreicht werden, allerdings finden sich bei allen anderen Therapieformen auch in frühen Tumorstadien (Tabelle zur Übersicht der gängigsten Selektionskriterien zur Lebertransplantation) innerhalb von 5 Jahren in bis zu 80% der Fälle Rezidive oder Zweittumoren [158], [159]. Die Lebertransplantation ist die einzige Therapieform, bei der sowohl das HCC als auch die zugrunde liegende Leberzirrhose therapiert werden. Im Stadium BCLC A kommt es nach Lebertransplantation zu nur niedrigen Rezidivraten von etwa 10-12%. Daher resultieren im Langzeitverlauf bei adäquater Patientenselektion auch die besten Überlebensraten. Die Transplantation ist somit die effektivste der verfügbaren Therapieoptionen. Daher sollen Patienten mit einem auf die Leber begrenzen HCC, die für eine Lebertransplantation geeignet sind oder nach entsprechenden vorbereitenden Maßnahmen (z.B. Alkoholkarenz) geeignet sein könnten, in einem Lebertransplantationszentrum vorgestellt werden.

Prinzipiell besteht für die meisten Patienten mit einem auf die Leber begrenzten HCC eine mehr oder weniger hohe Chance auf eine kurative Behandlung durch eine Lebertransplantation [160]. Entscheidend für die Auswahl geeigneter Patienten ist der zu erwartende Vorteil für die Transplantation im Vergleich zu alternativen Behandlungsstrategien. Daneben spielt natürlich auch die beschränkte Verfügbarkeit von Spenderorganen eine wichtige Rolle.

Aus Mangel an etablierten tumorbiologischen Kriterien (mit Ausnahme des Differenzierungsgrades und des AFP-Werts, s.u.), orientieren sich die verfügbaren Analysen vor allem an morphometrischen Kriterien, d.h. an der Anzahl und Größe der Tumorknoten. Bei rein hepatischem Befall korreliert das Rückfallrisiko nach Lebertransplantation mit der Anzahl und (maximalen bzw. kumulativen) Größe der vorhandenen Tumorknoten [161].

Als etabliertes Standardkriterium für die Indikation zur Lebertransplantation werden in den meisten Ländern, wie auch in Deutschland, die sogenannten Mailand-Kriterien für eine langfristig erfolgreiche Lebertransplantation angewendet [162]. Patienten mit einem irresektablem HCC innerhalb der Mailand-Kriterien weisen nach Lebertransplantation eine 5-Jahres-Überlebensrate von 65 - 80% und eine HCC-Rezidivrate von etwa 10-12% auf [163] Daher stellen die Mailand-Kriterien auch in Deutschland die akzeptierte Basis für eine Priorisierung zur Lebertransplantation dar. Bei anhaltender Erfüllung dieser Kriterien wird der entsprechende matchMELD alle 3 Monate hochgestuft. Dies erfolgt aktuell gemäß den Richtlinien der Bundesärztekammer nur, sofern ein solitäres HCC >20 mm und ≤50mm vorliegt, bzw. bis zu 3 Herde > 10 mm und ≤30mm [164]. Herde, die weniger als 10 mm durchmessen, werden für die Klassifizierung dagegen nicht berücksichtigt. Andere Selektionskriterien als die Mailand-Kriterien haben derzeit in Deutschland keinen Einfluss auf die Priorisierung der Patienten. Während der Zeit auf der Warteliste muss regelmäßig kontrolliert werden, ob Patienten die Mailand-Kriterien noch erfüllen, oder ob es zu einem Tumorprogress gekommen ist. Daher sollen mindestens alle 3 Monate Verlaufsuntersuchungen mittels mehrphasiger, kontrastmittelverstärkter CT oder MRT-Untersuchungen des Abdomens vorgenommen werden. Zusätzlich sollten auch AFP-Verlaufskontrollen (s.u.) und in regelmäßigen Abständen (ca. 6 Monate) ein CT des Thorax zum Ausschluss von Lungenmetastasen veranlasst werden [164].

Auch Patienten, die die Mailand-Kriterien nicht erfüllen, können und dürfen einer Lebertransplantation zugeführt werden, sofern kein extrahepatischer Befall und keine Makroinvasion von Lebergefäßen vorliegen. Diese Patienten erhalten allerdings keine entsprechende Priorisierung und müssen meist mit Organen aus der „Rescue Allocation“ oder von Lebendspendern versorgt werden. Die Selektionskriterien bei Patienten außerhalb der Mailand-Kriterien werden durch das lokale Transplantationszentrum festgelegt. Anhand der vorliegenden Daten aus der Literatur kann bisher keine klare Obergrenze hinsichtlich Anzahl und Größe der Tumorknoten definiert werden. In Zukunft könnten möglicherweise auch hier molekulare Marker als Entscheidungshilfe dienen [165].

International liegen große retrospektive Analysen bezüglich einer Ausdehnung der Auswahlkriterien zur Lebertransplantation vor. Dabei stellen die UCSF-Kriterien (University of California, San Francisco) [166] und die up-to-7 Kriterien [167] die am häufigsten verwendeten erweiterten Selektionskriterien (siehe Übersicht der gängigsten Selektionskriterien zur Lebertransplantation) dar.

Tabelle 5: Übersicht der gängigsten Selektionskriterien zur Lebertransplantation

 

Solitärer Knoten

Mehrere Tumorknoten

5-Jahres-Überlebensrate nach Lebertransplantation

 

keine extrahepatischen Manifestationen (cN0M0)

keine makrovaskuläre Gefäßinvasion (cV0)

matchMELD-Standardkriterien
(Bundesärztekammer)

≥ 2cm und ≤ 5cm

2-3 Herde:

≥ 1cm und ≤ 3cm

Mailand-Kriterien

[162]

≤ 5 cm

Max 3 Herde ≤ 3cm

> 70%

Up-to-7 Kriterien

[167]

≤ 6 cm

Summe aus Durchmesser des größten Tumors (cm) und Anzahl der Tumorknoten ≤ 7

> 70%

UCSF-Kriterien

[166]

≤ 6,5 cm

Max. 3 Herde ≤ 4,5 cm und ein maximaler addierter Tumordurchmesser ≤ 8 cm

> 70%

 

Publizierte Expertenmeinungen und Empfehlungen von Fachgesellschaften stimmen überein, dass eine Transplantation bei Verwendung erweiterter Auswahlkriterien (d.h. außerhalb der Mailand-Kriterien) erst nach Dokumentation eines Ansprechens auf eine neoadjuvante, lokoregionäre Therapie [168], [169], [170], [171] (Details siehe unten) erfolgen sollte, da ansonsten die Rezidivraten nach Transplantation deutlich ansteigen.

Auch bei formal resektablen HCC-Befunden in Zirrhose kann eine Indikation zur Transplantation gestellt werden, wenn davon auszugehen ist, dass das Rezidivrisiko nach Resektion und/oder Lokalablation sehr hoch ist [172]. Ob hier zunächst eine lokale Therapie (Resektion/Lokalablation) erfolgen sollte, und nur im Falle eines Tumorrezidives die Indikation zur Transplantation gestellt wird (sogenannte Salvage Transplantation) oder ob im Falle eines hohen Rezidivrisikos schon primär die Indikation zur Transplantation gestellt werden sollte [173], muss im lokalen Tumorboard bzw. der lokalen Transplantationskonferenz im Sinne einer Nutzen/Risiko-Abwägung entschieden werden [174].

In einer retrospektiven Analyse zur Salvage Transplantation konnte nachgewiesen werden, dass dieses Konzept bei solitären Tumoren oft gut funktioniert und dadurch sogar Organe ‚eingespart‘ werden können [175], so dass nicht in allen Fällen direkt eine Transplantation erfolgen muss [176]. Weitere Parameter, die in die Entscheidungsfindung mit einbezogen werden sollten, sind z.B. die Leberfunktion und zusätzliche dysplastische Knoten in der Restleber.

Tabelle 6: Definitionen

Begriff

Definition

Neoadjuvante Therapie

Behandlung, die vor einer operativen Maßnahme (z.B. Resektion oder Lebertransplantation) erfolgt, mit dem Ziel einer Verkleinerung der Tumormasse.

Bridging

Lokoregionäre Therapie oder Resektion eines HCC innerhalb der Mailand-Kriterien auf der Warteliste

Downstaging

Vorbehandlung eines HCC außerhalb der Mailand-Kriterien mit dem Ziel der Tumorverkleinerung bis zu definierten Selektionskriterien (in der Regel: bis die Mailand-Kriterien erreicht sind).

3.4.1.1.1 Kontraindikationen für eine Lebertransplantation
3.34 · Konsensbasierte Empfehlung · geprüft 2024

Bei extrahepatischen Tumormanifestationen und/oder einer makrovaskulären Invasion der Lebergefäße soll eine Lebertransplantation nicht durchgeführt werden.

Konsens
Starker Konsens

Es ist bekannt, dass Patienten mit extrahepatischen Tumormanifestationen z.B. in regionalen Lymphknoten oder im Sinne von Fernmetastasen, nach Lebertransplantation ein unvertretbar hohes Rückfallrisiko von annähernd 100% haben [177]. Die Überlebensraten sind mit im Median 9 Monaten und 22% nach 5 Jahren schlecht. Daher besteht bei Vorliegen einer extrahepatischen Tumormanifestation eine Kontraindikation zur Lebertransplantation [178]. Ähnliches gilt für eine makrovaskuläre Tumorinfiltration von Lebergefäßen [179]. Bei makrovaskulärer Invasion ohne Downstaging wurden nach Lebertransplantation Rezidivraten von 75% innerhalb von 5 Jahren berichtet [180], so dass hierdurch ebenfalls eine absolute Kontraindikation für eine Lebertransplantation begründet ist. Insofern müssen diese Konditionen vor einer Listung zur Lebertransplantation durch geeignete Staging-Untersuchungen (CT-Thorax, dynamisches MRT der Leber, mehrphasiges CT des Abdomens, ggf. Skelettszintigraphie) ausgeschlossen werden.

3.35 · Konsensbasierte Empfehlung · modifiziert 2024

Bei einem AFP-Wert >1000 ng/ml sollte keine Indikation zur Transplantation ohne neoadjuvante Therapie gestellt werden.

Bei AFP-Anstieg auf >1000 ng/ml unter Bridging-Therapie sollte die Transplantation nicht durchgeführt werden.

Konsens
Starker Konsens
ÄnderungshinweisBei einem AFP-Wert >1000 ng/ml sollte keine Indikation zur Transplantation ohne neoadjuvante Therapie gestellt werden.

Neben bildmorphologischen Kriterien werden auch zunehmend Biomarker zur Vorhersage des Rezidivrisikos untersucht. Der einzige HCC-Biomarker, für den bisher eine ausreichende Datengrundlage vorliegt, ist der AFP-Wert. Es ist bekannt, dass ein hoher oder rasch ansteigender AFP-Wert mit einer schlechteren postoperativen Prognose bezüglich des HCC-Rezidivrisikos vergesellschaftet ist [181]. So konnte z.B. ein monatlicher AFP-Anstieg größer 15 ng/ml als ungünstiger prognostischer Parameter nachgewiesen werden, ebenso wie AFP-Werte über 500 ng/ml [182] bzw. von mehr als 1000 ng/ml [183]. In einer weiteren Analyse konnte ein AFP-Wert > 1000 ng/ml als ein starker präoperativer Surrogatmarker für eine Gefäßinvasion innerhalb der Mailand-Kriterien gefunden werden [184]. Anhand der aktuellen Datenlage kann keine eindeutige Empfehlung für eine AFP-Obergrenze als absolute Kontraindikation zur Lebertransplantation ausgesprochen werden. Die meisten Autoren stimmen jedoch überein, dass bei einem AFP-Wert über 1000 ng/ml unabhängig von der bildmorphologisch sichtbaren Anzahl und Größe der Tumorknoten das Rezidivrisiko nach Transplantation signifikant ansteigt und daher die Indikation zur Transplantation ohne neoadjuvante Therapie nicht gestellt werden sollte. Dies gilt auch, wenn sich der Tumor bildmorphologisch formal innerhalb der Mailand-Kriterien befindet [184]. So empfiehlt z.B. die AASLD, dass eine Lebertransplantation wieder erwogen werden kann, wenn der AFP-Wert unter lokoregionärer Therapie auf weniger als 500 ng/ml abfällt [185]. Der Abfall eines vorher stark erhöhten AFP-Wertes auf < 500 ng/ml ist mit einer günstigen Prognose assoziiert, so dass dann eine Transplantation sinnvoll erscheint. So lag die HCC-Rezidivrate in einer Auswertung der UNOS-Datenbank bei 35,0 % wenn der AFP-Wert bei Transplantation > 1000 ng/ml betrug. Das Rezidivrisiko sank auf 13,3 % im Falle eines AFP-Abfalls auf <500 bis 101 g/ml und es sank auf 7,2 % wenn das AFP vor der Transplantation auf 100 ng/ml oder weniger abfiel (p < 0,001) [186]. Für die Abschätzung der individuellen Prognose unter Berücksichtigung des AFP-Wertes und der bildmorphologischen Kriterien vor bzw. unter lokoregionärer Therapie kann der Metroticket Rechner (http://www.hcc-olt-metroticket.org/) hilfreich sein.

3.36 · Konsensbasierte Empfehlung · geprüft 2024

Das chronologische Alter stellt per se keine Kontraindikation dar. Wenn Patienten älter als 65 Jahre sind, sollte die Indikation zur Lebertransplantation allerdings besonders sorgfältig geprüft werden.

Konsens
Starker Konsens

Das chronologische Alter stellt per se keine Kontraindikation für eine Lebertransplantation dar [187], [188], entscheidender ist das biologische Alter. Im Rahmen der Transplantationsevaluation sollen daher prognoserelevante Komorbiditäten insbesondere bei älteren Patienten (> 65-70 Jahre) ausgeschlossen werden und damit eine Akkumulation von Risikofaktoren vermieden werden. Hierbei sind insbesondere kardiovaskuläre Komorbiditäten und Malignome zu nennen. Eine Lebertransplantation kann auch bei über 65-Jährigen [189], [190], [191] bzw. über 70-Jährigen mit guter Transplantatfunktion und langfristig guter Lebensqualität erfolgreich durchgeführt werden [192], [193], [194], [195].

3.4.1.1.2 Bridging-Therapie
3.37 · Konsensbasierte Empfehlung · geprüft 2024

Vor Beginn einer Bridging-Therapie soll eine Kontaktaufnahme mit einem Transplantationszentrum erfolgen.

Konsens
Starker Konsens

Vor Einleitung einer Bridging-Therapie ist eine Kontaktaufnahme mit einem Transplantationszentrum erforderlich, um sicherzustellen, dass die präinterventionelle Bildgebung den Anforderungen der BÄK an das Kontrastmittel und die dynamischen Phasen genügt [164], da der Patient sonst keine Zusatzpunkte (matchMELD) auf der Warteliste erhalten kann. Eine erst nach der Bridging-Therapie erstellte ausreichende Bildgebung wird für die Vergabe der SE Punkte nicht akzeptiert.

3.38 · Evidenzbasierte Empfehlung · geprüft 2024

Patienten mit HCC (BCLC A) innerhalb der Mailand-Kriterien sollen eine Bridging-Therapie erhalten, sofern es die Leberfunktion zulässt.

Empfehlungsgrad
A: Starke Empfehlung für oder gegen ein Maßnahme - verwendete Ausdrucksweise = soll/soll nicht
Evidenzlevel
1
Konsens
Starker Konsens
Literatur
[196] [197] [198]
Evidenztabellen (1)HCC Bridging-Therapie

Patienten auf der Warteliste haben ein relevantes Risiko für einen Tumorprogress. Das primäre Ziel einer Bridging-Therapie ist es, bei Patienten, die sich auf der Warteliste zur Lebertransplantation befinden, einen Tumorprogress und eine damit verbundene Abmeldung von der Warteliste zu vermeiden. Das Risiko für einen Tumorprogress ist innerhalb der Mailand-Kriterien von unterschiedlichen Faktoren wie Größe, Anzahl und Differenzierungsgrad des Tumors abhängig. Diese sollten bei der Entscheidung für oder gegen eine Bridging-Therapie berücksichtigt und gegen das potenzielle periinterventionelle Risiko abgewogen werden. Dies gilt vor allem bei Patienten mit eingeschränkter Leberfunktion und kleinen Tumoren. Aufgrund der momentan verfügbaren Datenlage und dem Fehlen randomisierter Studien können insbesondere für kleine Tumoren (Stadium BCLC-0 = singulärer Tumor < 2 cm = UNOS T1) keine eindeutigen Empfehlungen für eine Bridging-Therapie ausgesprochen werden [199].

Dagegen liegen für das Stadium BCLC-A inzwischen viele retrospektive Auswertungen großer multizentrischer und nationaler Kollektive sowie entsprechende Metaanalysen vor. Die Studienlage zeigt divergierende Ergebnisse bzgl. des Benefits einer Bridging-Therapie für Patienten mit HCC in der Gruppe innerhalb der Mailand-Kriterien. Dabei ist der Therapieerfolg neoadjuvanter Therapien im Wesentlichen vom Ansprechen (Responder vs. Non-Responder) abhängig. Mehrere Studien [200], [201], [202], [203], [204], [205], [206] belegen bessere Überlebensraten nach Transplantation bei gutem Therapieansprechen bzw. schlechtere Überlebensraten bei minderem Therapieansprechen. Außerdem liefern die meisten Studien Hinweise, dass eine (lokoregionäre) Bridging-Therapie den Tumorprogress verzögert und damit das Risiko einer Abmeldung von der Warteliste signifikant verringert. So ergab eine aktuelle Metaanalyse ein relatives Risiko für eine HCC-bedingte Abmeldung von der Transplantationswarteliste bei Anwendung einer lokoregionärer Bridging-Therapie von 0,11 (95% CI: 0,07; 0,17) [197]. Allerdings war dieser Wert bei starker Heterogenität der Studien nicht statistisch signifikant. Eine multizentrische, statistische Auswertung der Daten von 1083 europäischen HCC- Patienten innerhalb der Mailand-Kriterien mittels “inverse probability of treatment weighting (IPTW)” Analyse konnte zeigen, dass bei einer Intention to Treat (ITT) Betrachtung das Risiko einer HCC-bedingten Abmeldung von der Warteliste durch eine Bridging-Therapie um 34% bis 49% gesenkt wird [207]. Bei bis zu 3 Bridging-Therapien fand sich auch eine niedrige Rezidivrate nach Transplantation. Waren dagegen 4 oder mehr Behandlungen nötig, war dies nicht mehr zu beobachten [207].

Darüber hinaus kann das Ansprechen auf eine Bridging-Therapie ähnlich wie das Downstaging (siehe unten) innerhalb der Mailand-Kriterien als ein tumorbiologisches Selektionskriterium verwendet werden und damit zu einer besseren Patientenselektion und geringeren Rezidivrate beitragen [208]. In einer Auswertung von UNOS Daten von über 3000 HCC Patienten innerhalb der Mailand-Kriterien (Vergleich mit und ohne Bridging-Therapie) fand sich in der pathologischen Aufarbeitung der HCC-Herde ein signifikant niedrigerer Anteil von mikrovaskulärer (16,8% vs. 22,8%, p< 0,001) und makrovaskulärer Infiltration (3,4% vs. 5,1%; p < 0,001) in der Therapiegruppe (trotz initial mehr und größerer Tumoren) [163]. Dies könnte entweder für eine Verhinderung der Gefäßinvasion durch die Bridging-Therapie sprechen, wahrscheinlich aber zumindest für eine bessere Patientenselektion. Da keine ITT-Analyse vorliegt, lässt sich dies jedoch nicht mit letzter Sicherheit beantworten. Darüber hinaus konnte gezeigt werden, dass eine hohe Anzahl von notwendigen Behandlungen für eine aggressivere Tumorbiologie spricht, vor allem auch, wenn sich gleichzeitig ein steigender AFP-Wert findet. Beides geht mit einer erhöhten Rezidivrate einher [163], [171], [209], [210], [211], [212], [213], selbst wenn sich das HCC bildmorphologisch weiterhin innerhalb der Mailand-Kriterien befindet.

Dagegen gilt es als erwiesen, dass bei einem sehr guten pathologischen Ansprechen im Sinne einer kompletten Remission nach einer Bridging-Therapie die HCC-Rezidivraten nach Lebertransplantation sehr gering und in manchen Serien sogar unter 5% liegen [163]. Insgesamt fand sich jedoch in dieser wie auch in anderen Auswertungen kein signifikanter Unterschied in der 5-Jahres-Überlebensrate (68 vs. 68%, p = 0,490) und der 5-Jahres-Rezidivrate (11,2 vs. 10,1%, p = 0,474), wenn alle Patienten mit und ohne Bridging-Therapie verglichen wurden.

Bei Patienten mit einem stark erhöhten AFP-Wert (>1000 ng/ml) wird eine Bridging-Therapie als obligat angesehen. Aufgrund des sehr hohen Rezidivrisikos sollten diese Patienten nicht ohne neoadjuvante Therapie transplantiert werden, auch dann nicht, wenn sie sich bildmorphologisch innerhalb der Mailand-Kriterien befinden und die vermutete Wartezeit < 3 Monate beträgt, z.B.: im Falle einer geplanten Lebendspende. Die Bridging-Therapie dient dann weniger der Kontrolle des HCCs vor Transplantation als vielmehr einer Patientenselektion im Sinne eines sog. „Test of Time“ [182].

Neben dem radiologischen Ansprechen ist daher auch der AFP-Wert bei der Einschätzung des Rezidivrisikos wichtig. So konnte gezeigt werden, dass bei normalem AFP-Wert (entweder schon vor Beginn oder unter Bridging-Therapie <20 ng/ml) das geringstes Rezidivrisiko nach LTx vorliegt (5-Jahres-Rezidivrate ca. 7 %). Findet sich dagegen unter lokoregionärer Therapie ein AFP-Rückgang jedoch keine Normalisierung (>20 ng/ml), so ist das Rezidivrisiko bereits signifikant erhöht (5-Jahres-Rezidivrate ca. 14%, HR: 2,0, p < 0,001). Am höchsten ist das Rezidivrisiko bei ansteigendem AFP-Wert unter Bridging-Therapie (5-Jahres-Rezidivrate ca. 21%, HR: 3,1 p < 0,001) [163].

Insgesamt wird von den meisten Autoren im Feld empfohlen, bei einer zu erwartenden Wartezeit von mehr als 3 bis 6 Monaten, eine Bridging-Therapie zu beginnen, damit der Patient nicht aufgrund eines Tumorprogresses von der Warteliste genommen werden muss oder seinen matchMELD verliert [5], [185], [199]. Um den Selektionseffekt der Bridging-Therapie zu verstärken, werden im UNOS-Allokationssystem seit 2015 sogar nur noch Patienten priorisiert, bei denen die Tumoren mittels Bridging-Therapie für mindestens 6 Monate innerhalb der Mailand-Kriterien gehalten werden können.

In Deutschland ist aufgrund des Organmangels eine Wartezeit von mehr als 6 Monaten in den allermeisten Fällen einzukalkulieren. Als Ausnahmen können hier aktuell allenfalls Patienten in der Blutgruppe AB, B oder Transplantationen im Rahmen einer Lebendspende angesehen werden. Auch hier kann jedoch unter Beachtung einer ausreichenden Leberfunktion die Einleitung einer Bridging-Therapie zur Einschätzung der Tumorbiologie und damit zur Patientenselektion sinnvoll sein. Eine Entscheidung für den individuellen Fall muss in der interdisziplinären Konferenz getroffen werden. Gleiches gilt für einen Tumorprogress unter Bridging-Therapie hinsichtlich einer temporären NT-Meldung und Beobachtung des weiteren Verlaufs unter lokoregionärer Therapie für 3-6 Monate abhängig vom Ausmaß des Progresses.

Literaturübersicht s. Anhang (Tabelle: Literaturübersicht Bridging-Therapie)

3.39 · Evidenzbasierte Empfehlung · geprüft 2024

Für das Bridging sollen Lokalablation, Resektion, oder transarterielle Verfahren (TACE, TARE) eingesetzt werden.

Empfehlungsgrad
A: Starke Empfehlung für oder gegen ein Maßnahme - verwendete Ausdrucksweise = soll/soll nicht
Evidenzlevel
1
Konsens
Konsens
Literatur
[196] [197] [198]
Evidenztabellen (1)HCC Bridging-Therapie

Bisher konnte für keine der genannten Methoden ein Vorteil im Rahmen der Bridging-Therapie nachgewiesen werden, sodass die Methodenwahl von Tumorlage, Tumorgröße, Leberfunktion und der lokalen Expertise abhängt. Genauere Erläuterungen zu den einzelnen Methoden finden sich im Hintergrundtext zum  Downstaging.

3.40 · Evidenzbasierte Empfehlung · geprüft 2024

Eine Hochpräzisionsradiotherapie (Stereotactic Body Radiotherapy; SBRT) sollte als Bridging-Verfahren bis zur Lebertransplantation geprüft werden, wenn die weiteren Bridging-Verfahren nicht zum Einsatz kommen können.

Empfehlungsgrad
B: Empfehlung für oder gegen eine Maßnahme - verwendete Ausdrucksweise = sollte/sollte nicht
Evidenzlevel
2
Konsens
Starker Konsens
Literatur
[214] [215]
Evidenztabellen (1)HCC SBRT

Es liegen nun auch die Ergebnisse einer prospektiven Studie vor, die den Einsatz der SBRT als Bridgingverfahren evaluiert hat. Wong und Kollegen behandelten im Zeitraum zwischen 2015 und 2020 40 HCC Patienten mittels SBRT als Bridging Verfahren [214]. Als Vergleichsgruppe dienten Patienten, die vor Beginn des Rekrutierungszeitraums der Studie eine TACE (n=59) oder HIFU (n=51) erhalten hatten. Die TACE erfolgte mit einem Median von 3 Therapien (Spannweite 1-9). In keiner der Gruppen kam es zu Todesfällen binnen 30 Tagen nach Abschluss der Prozedur oder zu einer akuten Leberfunktionsverschlechterung die eine notfällige Transplantation erforderlich machte. Die Tumorkontrolle war nach einem Jahr mit der SBRT signifikant höher verglichen mit der TACE (92.3% vs. 43.5%), die Wahrscheinlichkeit für einen Dropout aus der Transplantationslistung signifikant geringer (15.1% und 23.3% nach einem bzw. drei Jahren für die SBRT verglichen mit 28.9% und 45.8% nach TACE) [214]. Insgesamt bestätigt diese prospektive Studie hinsichtlich Wirksamkeit und Toxizität die Daten der bisherigen retrospektiven Studien aus der SBRT im Kontext der Bridging Therapie: Eine Intention-to-Treat-Analyse einer großen Kohorte von Patienten (n=379), die SBRT (n=36), Radiofrequenzablation (RFA) (n=99) oder TACE (n=244) erhielten, wurde von Sapisochin et al. [215] durchgeführt und zeigt bei deutlichem Selektionsbias ähnliche Drop-out-Raten zwischen den drei Gruppen (16,7%, 20,2%, 16,8%; p = 0,7) und keinen Unterschied im 1-, 3- und 5-Jahres-Überleben (5-Jahres-Überleben: 75% vs. 69% vs. 73%; p = 0,7). In einer weiteren randomisierten Studie mit 76 Patienten zeigte sich zwischen einer Radiobeamtherapie und TACE ein vergleichbares OS nach zwei Jahren [216]. Darüber hinaus kann die SBRT wegen der hohen Ansprechraten und Lokalkontrollraten um Progressionen zu vermeiden oder als sog. Downstaging Methode im Kontext des Bridgings vor einer Transplantation angewendet werden.

3.4.1.1.3 Downstaging
3.41 · Evidenzbasierte Empfehlung · geprüft 2024

Bei geeigneten Patienten mit einem HCC außerhalb der Mailand-Kriterien und innerhalb der UCSF-Kriterien kann eine Lebertransplantation erfolgen, insbesondere dann, wenn ein Downstaging bis innerhalb der Mailand-Kriterien gelingt.

Außerhalb der UCSF-Kriterien kann bei Tumoren ohne extrahepatische Manifestation und ohne Makroinvasion von Gefäßen nach Ansprechen auf eine neoadjuvante Therapie eine Evaluation zur Lebertransplantation erwogen werden.

Empfehlungsgrad
0: offene Empfehlung (Option) bzgl. einer Maßnahme - verwendete Ausdrucksweise = kann
Evidenzlevel
1
Konsens
Starker Konsens
Literatur
[197] [217] [218] [219] [220] [170] [183] [168] [169] [160]
Evidenztabellen (1)HCC Downstaging

In einer prospektiv randomisierten Studie konnte gezeigt werden, dass bei Patienten mit einem HCC außerhalb der Mailand-Kriterien nach effektivem Downstaging das Überleben in der Gruppe nach Lebertransplantation signifikant besser war, als in der Gruppe ohne Lebertransplantation aber mit sonstigen Standardtherapien (5-Jahres OS 77,5 % vs. 31,2 %, 95 % CI 0,11-0,92; p = 0,035) [219].

Patienten außerhalb der Mailand-Kriterien weisen insgesamt eine signifikant höhere Rezidivrate und damit ein verringertes Gesamtüberleben nach einer Lebertransplantation auf. Die Prognose korreliert mit der maximalen Tumorgröße und der Anzahl der Tumorknoten [167]. Sorgfältig ausgewählte Patienten außerhalb der Mailand-Kriterien können nach Lebertransplantation jedoch ähnlich gute 5-Jahres-Überlebensraten erreichen wie Patienten innerhalb der Mailand-Kriterien [170], [183], [220]. Die Patientenselektion erfolgt dabei in den meisten Analysen durch Ansprechen auf eine neoadjuvante, lokoregionäre Therapie (Downstaging). Weitere Parameter zur Patientenselektion werden evaluiert. Mit Ausnahme des AFP-Werts (s.u.) und des Tumorgradings (s.u.) ist die Evidenzlage für die anderen Parameter jedoch nicht ausreichend, so dass zum momentanen Zeitpunkt keine weiteren Parameter für die klinische Routine empfohlen werden können.

Gute Langzeitergebnisse nach erfolgreichem Downstaging mit 5-Jahres-Überlebensraten von 65 – 70 % sind vor allem für Patienten innerhalb der "up-to-seven" (5-Jahres-Überlebensrate 71,2 % [167]) und/oder der UCSF-Kriterien (5-Jahres-Überlebensrate 72,4 %) [166]) durch zahlreiche retrospektive Analysen an teilweise großen, multizentrischen Kollektiven belegt. Die Patientenselektion über das Therapieansprechen (Downstaging) ist dabei effektiv. So haben Patienten außerhalb der Mailand-Kriterien, bei denen durch lokoregionäre Therapie ein Downstaging bis zum Erfüllen der Mailand-Kriterien erreicht werden kann, eine gleich gute Prognose nach Lebertransplantation wie Patienten, die bereits initial diese Kriterien erfüllen [183], [185], [187], [221]. Im UNOS-Raum werden daher Patienten innerhalb der UCSF-Kriterien nach Downstaging priorisiert und erhalten einen entsprechenden matchMELD. In Deutschland ist eine Transplantation auch außerhalb der Mailand-Kriterien möglich. Es konnte eine Priorisierung mit Zuweisung eines matchMELD jedoch nur im Rahmen der TOM-Studie erfolgen. Diese Studie wurde bereits geschlossen (Stand März 2024).

Es existieren auch Daten, dass ein Therapieansprechen ein günstiger prognostischer Faktor per se ist, selbst wenn die Mailand-Kriterien nicht erfüllt sind. Eine Hilfestellung für die individuelle Prognose eines HCC Patienten vor oder nach neoadjuvanter Therapie kann der Metroticket Rechner (http://www.hcc-olt-metroticket.org/) geben [222]. Bei gutem Ansprechen auf die lokoregionären Therapie kann daher auch dann eine Lebertransplantation erwogen werden, wenn ein Downstaging in die Mailand-Kriterien nicht komplett gelingt. Mit zunehmender Tumorlast steigt außerhalb der UCSF-Kriterien jedoch das Risiko für einen Drop-out auf der Warteliste sowie das Rezidivrisiko nach Lebertransplantation. In einer Intention-to-Treat (ITT) Analyse konnte gezeigt werden, dass bei Patienten außerhalb der Mailand-, aber innerhalb der UCSF-Kriterien in 84 % das Downstaging erfolgreich war, außerhalb der UCSF-Kriterien jedoch nur bei 65 % (p < 0,001). Der Erfolg des Downstagings konnte dabei am besten durch die Summe aus größtem Tumorknoten und Anzahl der Läsionen vorausgesagt werden (HR: 0,87; p = 0,04) [168]. Die Rate an Patienten, die ein fortgesetztes Tumoransprechen aufwiesen und schließlich transplantiert wurden, unterschied sich noch deutlicher. So wurden in der UCSF-Gruppe 59% der Patienten transplantiert, in der Gruppe außerhalb der UCSF-Kriterien nur 14 % (p < 0,001). Während nach Transplantation das 5-Jahres-Überleben in der Gruppe außerhalb der UCSF-Kriterien bei 50 % lag, lag es innerhalb der UCSF-Kriterien bei 79 %, ohne dass dieser Unterschied statistisch signifikant war. Dagegen war das rezidivfreie Überleben außerhalb der UCSF-Kriterien signifikant niedriger (40 % versus 86 %, p < 0,01). Insofern können die UCSF-Kriterien als grober Anhalt dienen, eine exakte Obergrenze für den Versuch eines Downstagings kann aber bisher nicht definiert werden, da neben der alleinigen Tumorgröße und -anzahl auch die Tumorbiologie mitberücksichtigt werden muss.

Während der initiale AFP-Wert in der Auswertung von Sinha et al. keinen signifikanten prädiktiven Wert für ein erfolgreiches Downstaging aufwies [168], stellte es in einer anderen multizentrischen Studie neben der maximalen Tumorgröße und der Tumoranzahl einen signifikanten Einflussfaktor dar [169]. In dieser Studie konnten in Abhängigkeit vom AFP-Wert und der Summe aus Tumoranzahl und Tumorgröße Grenzwerte herausgearbeitet werden, ab denen ein Downstaging unwahrscheinlich wird. So ist laut dieser Analyse bei einem AFP-Wert <20 ng/ml ein Downstaging bis zu einer Summe von 12 erfolgversprechend, bei einem AFP-Wert zwischen 201 und 500 ng/ml dagegen nur bis zu einer Summe von 7. Allerdings fehlt in dieser Auswertung im Hinblick auf die Ergebnisse nach Lebertransplantation ein dynamisches Modell, das das Tumoransprechen auf die neoadjuvante Therapie berücksichtigt. Trotzdem konnte so nachgewiesen werden, dass in Abhängigkeit vom AFP-Wert auch außerhalb der UCSF-Kriterien gute Langzeitergebnisse bei entsprechender Patientenselektion erreichbar sind [169]. Dennoch ist der AFP-Verlauf zur Einschätzung der Tumorbiologie hilfreich, da es auch hier Hinweise gibt, dass ein Abfall des AFP-Wert auf < 100 ng oder sogar im Normbereich (<20 ng/ml) mit einer signifikant besseren Prognose nach Transplantation einhergehen [186]. Auch in der multivariaten Analyse blieb ein AFP-Wert > 100 ng/ml ein signifikanter Faktor für ein schlechteres Überleben nach Transplantation (HR: 2,36; p = 0,009).

Ein präinterventioneller AFP-Wert > 1000 ng/ml (HR: 3,3; p < 0,001) und eine Leberzirrhose im Stadium Child B oder C (HR: 1,6; p < 0,001) konnten in einer weiteren Analyse als Risiko-Faktoren für eine geringe Erfolgschance einer Downstaging-Therapie identifiziert werden. Die Chance für ein erfolgreiches Downstaging lag in der Gruppe mit einem initialen AFP-Wert <100 Faktoren bei 91%, bei einem AFP-Wert zwischen 100 – 999 bei 85% und bei einem AFP-Wert  ≥1000 immer noch bei 67 % [170], [180]. Auch in einer weiteren Auswertung konnte belegt werden, dass ein AFP-Wert >1000 nicht ein erfolgreiches Downstaging mit nachfolgender Transplantation ausschließt [220]. Insgesamt sollte sich daher bei der Entscheidung zur Transplantation weniger am initialen AFP-Wert als vielmehr an der AFP-Dynamik [223] orientiert werden.

Aufgrund der teilweise widersprüchlichen Datenlage kann zum aktuellen Zeitpunkt keine Empfehlung für eine Obergrenze hinsichtlich Tumorgröße, Anzahl und AFP-Wert ausgesprochen werden. Es zeichnen sich jedoch Faktoren ab, die mit schlechteren Chancen für ein Downstaging bzw. einer erhöhten Rezidiv-Wahrscheinlichkeit nach Transplantation assoziiert sind. In diesen Fällen könnten daher zusätzliche Auswahlkriterien wie ein PET-CT oder eine Tumorbiopsie hilfreich sein.

Daten hierfür sind u.a. aus Lebendspendeprogrammen (ohne Downstaging) verfügbar. So konnte gezeigt werden, dass das Risiko eines Tumorrezidivs nach Transplantation allein durch die Kombination des initialen AFP-Wert und der PET-Positivität und unabhängig von der Tumorgröße und der Tumoranzahl in drei Kategorien eingeteilt werden kann. So fand sich in der Gruppe mit AFP-Wert < 200 ng/ml und negativem PET ein rezidivfreies 5-Jahres-Überleben von 86%, in der intermediären Gruppe mit einem negativen Faktor (AFP  > 200 oder PET-Positivität) von 79 % und in der Hochrisikogruppe (AFP > 200 und PET-Positivität) ein rezidivfreies 5-Jahres-Überleben von 19 % (p < 0,001) [224]. Dieser prädiktive Wert einer negativen PET-Untersuchung konnte auch in weiteren Studien bestätigt werden. So fand sich in einer deutschen Auswertung bei Tumoren außerhalb der ‚up-to-seven‘-Kriterien das PET-Verhalten als einziger prädiktiver Parameter. Entsprechend lag außerhalb dieser Kriterien das rezidivfreie Überleben nach 5 Jahren bei PET negativen Tumoren bei 87 % und bei PET positiven Tumoren bei 19 % [225]. Da nur etwa zwei Drittel aller schlecht differenzierten Tumoren eine PET-Positivität aufweisen, könnte hier eine Tumorbiopsie ebenfalls zur Entscheidungsfindung beitragen. So konnte bei Anwendung der „Extended Toronto Criteria (ETC)“ nach Selektion von G1 und G2 Tumoren durch eine obligate Tumorbiopsie des größten Tumors und Ausschluss von Patienten mit tumorbedingten Symptomen (Gewichtsverlust >10 kg, Änderung des ECOG-Scores ≥1 Punkt innerhalb von 3 Monaten, Performance Status >0) unabhängig von Tumorgröße- und Anzahl ein 5-Jahres-Überleben von 69% erreicht werden [160].

In Einzelfällen kann nach effektiver interventioneller oder operativer Therapie eines makrovaskulär infiltrativen HCC bei hepatischem Tumorrezidivs ohne Gefäßinvasion oder aufgrund Verschlechterung der Leberfunktion die Frage nach einer Lebertransplantation gestellt werden. In einer multizentrischen, retrospektiven Fallsammlung konnte gezeigt werden, dass bei HCC-Patienten mit makrovaskulärer Invasion nach erfolgreicher neoadjuvanter Therapie (komplette Remission des gefäßinvasiven Anteils nach TACE, TARE oder Resektion) nur bei 11 % der Patienten ein Rezidiv nach Lebertransplantation auftrat, wenn der AFP-Wert vor Transplantation weniger als 10 ng/ml betrug. Daraus resultierte eine 5-Jahres-Überlebensrate von 83% bei einem AFP-Wert < 10 ng/ml vor der Transplantation. Dagegen fand sich bei Patienten mit einem erhöhten AFP-Wert vor Transplantation (≥ 10 ng/ml) eine Rezidivrate von 50 % und ein 5-Jahres-Überleben von nur 33 % [226]. Auch wenn hier noch weitere Ergebnisse abgewartet werden müssen, kann bei dieser Patientengruppe unter der Voraussetzung eines niedrigen AFP-Werts eine Transplantation in Einzelfällen erwogen werden.

Hinsichtlich der Methode des Downstagings kann aufgrund fehlender direkter Vergleichsstudien wie bei der Bridging-Therapie dargelegt (s.o.) keine eindeutige Empfehlung ausgesprochen werden [220]. Sowohl eine Lokalablation als auch eine chirurgische Resektion, oder transarterielle Verfahren (TACE, TARE) können zum Downstaging effektiv eingesetzt werden [227]. Welches Verfahren dem Patienten angeboten werden soll, soll im interdisziplinären Tumorboard bzw. in der interdisziplinären Transplantationskonferenz festgelegt werden.

3.42 · Konsensbasierte Empfehlung · geprüft 2024

Für das Downstaging sollen entweder eine Lokalablation, eine Resektion oder ein transarterielles Verfahren (TACE, TARE) eingesetzt werden.

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Transarterielle Verfahren (TACE, TARE), ablative Therapien (RFA) und eine Leberresektion sind gleichermaßen effektiv beim Bridging und Downstaging zur Transplantation [197]. Es konnte zwischen den einzelnen Methoden kein Unterschied im Patientenüberleben für die Behandlung von Patienten innerhalb und außerhalb der Mailand-Kriterien nachgewiesen werden. Die unterschiedlichen Studien weisen zudem eine sehr hohe Heterogenität auf, so dass keine klaren Empfehlungen ausgesprochen werden können.

In neueren Studien wurde die Möglichkeit einer TARE zur neoadjuvanten Therapie vor Lebertransplantation untersucht, nachdem frühere Studien bereits die Möglichkeit einer TACE oder Resektion als Therapie zum Bridging beschrieben haben.

In einer randomisierten Studie wurde bei Patienten auf der Warteliste zur Lebertransplantation der Einsatz von TARE bei 17 Patienten mit TACE bei 16 Patienten verglichen. Der mediane Zeitpunkt bis zur Progression war im TARE-Arm zwar deutlich länger, allerdings ohne Einfluss auf das Gesamtüberleben nach Transplantation [228]. In einer weiteren retrospektiven Arbeit mit 22 Patienten lieferte die TARE als Bridging-Therapie vergleichbar gute Ergebnisse zu anderen lokale Verfahren [229].

Aufgrund der aktuell raschen Entwicklung neuer Substanzen für eine systemische Tumortherapie beim Hepatozellulären Karzinom ist in Zukunft möglicherweise auch ein Downstaging mittels Systemtherapie möglich. Derzeit liegen jedoch nur kleinere Studien oder Kombinationsstudien vor, die keine evidenzbasierte Empfehlung für ein Downstaging mittels Systemtherapie zulassen [230], [231], [232].

Literaturübersicht s. Anhang (Tabelle: Übersicht über die Literatur zum Downstaging)

3.4.1.1.4 Nachsorge nach Lebertransplantation
3.43 · Konsensbasierte Empfehlung · geprüft 2024

Außerhalb von Studien sollen Patienten mit HCC nach Lebertransplantation nicht adjuvant behandelt werden.

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Die Vermeidung bzw. die frühzeitige Diagnose eines möglichen Tumorrezidivs stehen bei der Nachsorge nach Lebertransplantation aufgrund eines HCC im Vordergrund. Hinsichtlich der Nachsorgeuntersuchungen weichen die Empfehlungen nach Lebertransplantation [233] nicht von denen nach Leberresektion ab, sodass auf das Kapitel Nachsorge verwiesen werden kann.

Für eine adjuvante Tumortherapie gibt es bisher keine evidenzbasierte Grundlage, so dass diese außerhalb von Studien nicht erfolgen sollte [234], siehe auch Kapitel Systemtherapie.

Da die Immunsuppression das Tumorrezidiv als wesentlicher Risikofaktor begünstigt, sollte eine Reduktion der Immunsuppression und ggf. auch Modifikationen der applizierten Medikamente individuell erwogen werden. Verfügbare klinische Daten weisen darauf hin, dass eine Reduktion der prokarzinogenen Calcineurininhibitoren (CNI) und eine Vermeidung von T-Zell-depletierende Substanzen (ATG) das Rezidivrisiko möglicherweise verringern kann. So existieren mehrere retrospektive Analysen, die ein erhöhtes Rezidivrisiko bei hohem postoperativen Spiegel an CNI zeigen [235], [236], [237], [238]. Daher sollte der Spiegel der CNI (Tacrolimus, Cyclosporin A) soweit wie möglich reduziert und die CNI durch andere Substanzen ohne prokarzinogene Wirkung ergänzt bzw. im Langzeitverlauf ggf. auch ersetzt werden. Hierzu gehören neben den mTOR-Inhibitoren auch Antimetabolite (Mycophenolat) [239].

Für die Verwendung von mTOR Inhibitoren in Kombination mit niedrig dosierten CNI liegt bisher die beste Evidenz für eine Reduktion des Rezidivrisikos in Form von mehreren Metaanalysen [240], [241] sowie prospektiv randomisierten Studien vor. Drei randomisierte Studien haben primär den nephroprotektiven Effekt von mTOR-Inhibitoren untersucht, aber im Rahmen von sekundären Endpunkten auch eine niedrigere Inzidenz von HCC Rezidiven belegt [242], [243], [244]. In der prospektiv randomisierten SiLVER-Studie wurden 500 HCC-Patienten innerhalb und außerhalb der Mailand-Kriterien entweder mit einer mTOR-freien Immunsuppression behandelt oder mit einer Kombination aus Sirolimus und CNI. Im Langzeitverlauf fand sich in der Sirolimus-Gruppe ein leicht erhöhtes rezidivfreies Überleben nach 8 Jahren (70% vs. 65%, p = 0,28) und auch ein tendenziell, aber nicht statistisch signifikant besseres Gesamtüberleben (75% vs. 68%, p = 0,21) [244], [245][246]. Dabei zeigte sich aber bis 3 Jahre nach der Transplantation ein signifikant höheres rezidivfreies Überleben und bis 5 Jahre nach Transplantation ein höheres Gesamtüberleben, wobei der Effekt der Sirolimus-basierten Immunsuppression bei Patienten innerhalb der Mailand-Kriterien und bei jüngeren Patienten (< 60 Jahre) stärker ausgeprägt war. Insgesamt sprechen diese Daten somit für eine Verzögerung, wenn auch nicht Verhinderung eines Tumorrezidivs bei Sirolimus-basierter Immunsuppression. In Kombination mit den o.g. Studien zur Everolimus-basierten Immunsuppression sollte daher die Verwendung eines mTOR Inhibitors zur Reduktion der CNI-Dosis erwogen werden.

3.4.1.2 Resektion

3.4.1.2.1 Resektion beim Hepatozellulären Karzinom ohne Leberzirrhose
3.44 · Konsensbasierte Empfehlung · geprüft 2024

Eine Resektion eines HCC ohne Leberzirrhose soll erfolgen, wenn eine komplette Resektion (R0-Resektion) möglich ist.

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HCCs ohne begleitende Leberzirrhose stellen ähnlich wie HCCs in Zirrhose-Lebern eine heterogene Gruppe dar. HCCs in einer nicht-zirrhotischen Leber treten bei viraler oder nicht-viraler Hepatitis, Steatosis hepatis, Fibrose und bei Exposition von verschiedenen Risikofaktoren auf [247]. Einen zunehmenden Anteil stellen heute auch Patienten mit MASLD oder mit metabolischem Syndrom dar, bei denen eine HCC-Entwicklung häufig auch schon vor dem Stadium der Zirrhose zu finden ist [248], [249], [250]. Die Resektion des HCC stellt die Therapie der Wahl dar [251]. Die funktionelle Reserve nach Resektion ist im Vergleich zu Resektionen bei Zirrhose-Lebern größer. Kurative Resektionen sind bei bis zu 60% der Patienten mit einem HCC in einer Nicht-Zirrhose-Leber möglich [252]. Auch ausgedehnte Leberresektionen können somit mit einer niedrigen Morbiditäts- und Mortalitätsrate durchgeführt werden, wobei Resektionen beim metabolischen Syndrom mit etwas höheren Morbiditäts- und Mortalitätsraten verbunden zu sein scheinen [253].

Größe und Anzahl der Tumoren sowie die Infiltration großer Gefäße und der Gallenwege scheinen einen negativen prognostischen Einfluss zu haben [254], stellen jedoch keine Kontraindikation zur Resektion dar. Sichere Daten zur Frage, ob die Resektion in anatomischen Grenzen (in Segment- oder Subsegmentgrenzen) vorgenommen werden sollte, liegen nicht vor [255], [256].

3.4.1.2.2 Nachsorge beim Hepatozellulären Karzinom ohne Leberzirrhose
3.45 · Konsensbasierte Empfehlung · geprüft 2024

Nach Resektion eines HCC ohne Leberzirrhose sollte eine regelmäßige Nachsorge über 5 Jahre erfolgen.

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Nach Resektion eines HCCs in einer nicht-zirrhotischen Leber tritt häufig ein Rezidiv auf. Das rezidivfreie 1- bzw. 5-Jahres-Überleben liegt bei 71% bzw. 35% [257], [258]. Eine pragmatische Empfehlung zur Nachsorge beinhaltet 3-monatige bildgebende Kontrollen im ersten Jahr, 6-monatige im zweiten und jährliche ab dem dritten Jahr bis zu 5 Jahren nach Resektion. Durch Resektion eines HCC Rezidivs kann, sofern technisch möglich, eine 5-Jahres-Überlebensrate von 67% erreicht werden [258], [259]. Auch bei solitären metachronen Fernmetastasen (z.B. Lungenmetastasen, Nebennierenmetastasen) kann im Einzelfall eine Resektion erfolgen [260].

3.4.1.2.3 Resektion beim Hepatozellulären Karzinom mit Leberzirrhose
3.46 · Konsensbasierte Empfehlung · geprüft 2024

Bei einem singulären HCC-Knoten in Leberzirrhose mit funktioneller Resektabilität sollte eine Leberresektion erfolgen. Dies trifft insbesondere für HCC-Knoten > 3 cm zu.

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Aufgrund mehrerer möglicher Therapiemodalitäten und aufgrund unterschiedlicher Ausprägung der Leberzirrhose sollen Patienten mit einem HCC in einer interdisziplinären Tumorkonferenz vorgestellt werden. Die Beurteilung der Resektabilität soll durch einen in der hepatobiliären Chirurgie erfahrenen Chirurgen erfolgen. Bei der Beurteilung der funktionellen Resektabilität nehmen die Einschätzung der Leberfunktion und des Ausmaßes der portalen Hypertension eine zentrale Rolle ein. Besonders bei Patienten mit Leberparenchymstörungen sollte die Leberfunktionsreserve beurteilt und das Risiko der Entwicklung eines postoperativen Leberversagens eingeschätzt werden. Hierzu haben sich neben der klassischen Child-Pugh-Stadieneinteilung unter anderem der Indocyaningrün Clearance Test [261] und der LiMax-Atemtest [262], [263] sowie das Leber-Elastogramm [264] bewährt. Ferner stellt eine deutlich ausgeprägte portale Hypertension einen Prognosefaktor für das postoperative Überleben dar. Deswegen sollte das Ausmaß der portalen Hypertension bei der Entscheidung zur Resektion mitberücksichtigt werden. Die zurzeit beste Methode zur Beurteilung der portalen Hypertension stellt die Messung des Lebervenenverschlussdruckes dar [265]. Die Methode der Lebervenenverschlussdruck-Messung gehört in Deutschland und international jedoch nicht zur klinischen Routine bei der präoperativen Beurteilung der Leberzirrhose-Patienten [266], so dass indirekte Zeichen wie Aszites, Ösophagusvarizen, Splenomegalie und Thrombozytenzahlen unter 100 000/ml herangezogen werden müssen. 

Der ideale Patient für eine Resektion mit einem HCC in Zirrhose hat einen kleinen einzelnen HCC-Knoten in peripherer Lage und eine gut erhaltene Leberfunktion mit einer Thrombozytenzahl > 100 000/ml, entsprechend dem „very early stage (0-A)“ der „Barcelona Clinic Liver Cancer (BCLC)“ Klassifikation [5]. Auch in aktuellen Studien hat sich bestätigt, dass in dieser Patientengruppe die besten Kurz- und Langzeitergebnisse erreicht werden können, so wurde in der BRIDGE-Studie, in der 10 135 Patienten mit einem HCC ausgewertet wurden, eine 3- und 5-Jahres-Überlebensrate von 74% und 65% beschrieben [266]. In der gleichen Studie wurde berichtet, dass nur 80% der Patienten mit „idealen Bedingungen“ operiert und 20% anderen Therapieformen mit deutlich schlechteren 3- und 5-Jahres-Überlebensraten zugeführt wurden [266].

Bei einem singulären HCC-Knoten jeglicher Größe sollte eine Leberresektion durchgeführt werden. Bei tief und zentral liegenden Tumoren < 3 cm kann eine Ablation (RFA oder MWA) wegen vergleichbarer Langzeitergebnisse und niedrigen postinterventionellen Leberfunktionsstörungen von Vorteil sein.

3.47 · Konsensbasierte Empfehlung · geprüft 2024

Bei multiplen HCC-Knoten in Leberzirrhose innerhalb der Mailand-Kriterien kann eine Leberresektion durchgeführt werden.

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Bei multiplen HCC-Knoten in Leberzirrhose innerhalb der Mailand-Kriterien sollte die Möglichkeit einer Leberresektion geprüft werden. Multiple HCC-Knoten oder größere HCC-Knoten in Leberzirrhose außerhalb der Mailand-Kriterien oder außerhalb des Stadiums 0-A der BCLC-Klassifikation stellen aufgrund der neuen Daten per se keine Kontraindikation zur Resektion dar, sofern diese technisch durchführbar ist und ausreichend funktionelles Lebergewebe erhalten werden kann.

In den letzten 10 Jahren haben sich die Früh- und Langzeit-Ergebnisse nach Resektionen beim HCC in Zirrhose bei Patienten aus den Stadien „Intermediate Stage (B)“ oder Advanced Stage (C)“ der BCLC Klassifikation und außerhalb der Mailand-Kriterien deutlich verbessert [266], [267], [268], [269], [270], [271]. Gründe hierfür liegen in der genaueren präoperativen Operationsplanung basierend auf der verbesserten radiologischen Bildgebung, in der Weiterentwicklung chirurgischer Techniken inklusive der Einführung minimalinvasiver Methoden, in der Optimierung des intraoperativen Vena cava inferior Druck Managements und der postoperativen Therapie.

Die Daten sprechen dafür, dass in Einzelfällen Patienten mit einem HCC im Stadium B oder C der BCLC-Klassifikation oder Patienten außerhalb der Mailand-Kriterien für eine Leberresektion in Betracht kommen. Mehrere Autoren sprechen sich eindeutig für die Überarbeitung des BCLC-Algorithmus aus [266], [267], [268], [269], [270], [271]. Torzilli et al. konnten eine 30-Tages Mortalitätsrate für die BCLC-Stadien B und C von 3,1% bzw. 2,5% und eine 90-Tages Mortalitätsrate von 3,0% bzw. 3,0% beobachten [268]. Das 1-, 3- und 5-Jahres-Überleben lag für Patienten im BCLC B-Stadium bei 88%, 71% und 57% und im BCLC C-Stadium bei 76%, 49% und 38% [268]. Untersuchungen zum Rezidivmuster nach Resektionen zeigten keinen signifikanten Unterschied zwischen Patienten, die im Stadium 0-A nach der BCLC-Klassifikation operiert wurden gegenüber Patienten im Stadium B oder C [271]. Die Rezidive waren in beiden Stadien am häufigsten intrahepatisch und lagen im Stadium 0-A bei 74,3% und im Stadium B/C bei 70,8% [271].

3.48 · Konsensbasierte Empfehlung · geprüft 2024

Die Leberresektion kann offen oder minimalinvasiv durchgeführt werden.

Besonders bei zukünftigen Lebertransplantations-Patienten sollte eine minimalinvasive Leberresektion durchgeführt werden.

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Chirurgisch-technisch gibt es zwei Möglichkeiten der Leberresektion, nämlich die anatomische in den Sub- bzw. Segmentgrenzen oder die parenchymsparende, atypische Resektion. Durch die anatomische Resektion mit gleichzeitiger Entfernung von über das portalvenöse Stromgebiet disseminierten Tumorzellformationen soll das onkologische Ergebnis verbessert werden. Vor dem Hintergrund der nach wie vor sehr hohen lokalen Rezidivrate nach Resektion, von bis zu 50% in 5 Jahren in einigen Patientenkollektiven [272], erscheint dieser Ansatz vielversprechend. Ein onkologischer Vorteil für die anatomische Resektion konnte bis jetzt nicht eindeutig gezeigt werden [255]. Es liegt nur eine doppelt-blind randomisierte, prospektive Studie zu dieser Frage vor [273]. Feng et al. konnten an 105 Patienten zeigen, dass das Rezidiv nach anatomischer Resektion zwar später auftrat, aber kein signifikanter Unterschied im rezidivfreien Überleben bestand [273]. Die Frage, in welcher Form die Resektion, anatomisch oder atypisch, durchgeführt werden sollte, kann deswegen abschließend nicht beantwortet werden [255]. Eine Leberresektion beim HCC in Leberzirrhose mit Tumorinfiltration größerer Gefäße sollte dagegen nur in Ausnahmefällen erfolgen.

Die Anzahl minimalinvasiver Leberresektionen nimmt seit 10 Jahren stetig zu [274], [275]. Die Resektion des HCC in einer Leberzirrhose kann bei entsprechender Eignung des Operationsteams und entsprechender Ausrüstung minimalinvasiv (inklusivem Roboter Einsatz) durchgeführt werden [276], [277], [278]. Besonders bei Patienten vor einer geplanten Lebetransplantation ist die minimalinvasive Leberresektion für die Durchführung der Transplantation von Vorteil [279].

3.4.1.2.4 Nachsorge nach Resektion beim Hepatozellulären Karzinom mit Leberzirrhose
3.49 · Evidenzbasierte Empfehlung · geprüft 2024

Nach Leberresektion beim HCC in Zirrhose soll eine regelmäßige Nachsorge erfolgen.

Empfehlungsgrad
A: Starke Empfehlung für oder gegen ein Maßnahme - verwendete Ausdrucksweise = soll/soll nicht
Evidenzlevel
2
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Literatur
[280] [281] [282] [283] [284] [285]
Evidenztabellen (1)HCC Operation

Eine pragmatische Empfehlung zur Nachsorge beinhaltet 3-monatige bildgebende Kontrollen im ersten Jahr und 6-monatige im zweiten Jahr. Ab dem dritten Jahr kann die Nachsorge im Rahmen der Vorsorge bei Leberzirrhose erfolgen. Das Rezidivrisiko in der zirrhotischen Leber ist von mehreren Faktoren abhängig, u.a. der Genese der Leberzirrhose, sowie der Anwesenheit von nodulären Veränderungen [286], [287]. Daher sollte die Nachsorge den individuellen Gegebenheiten angepasst werden, jedoch in einer zirrhotischen Leber im Anschluss im Rahmen der regelmäßigen Vorsorgeuntersuchungen fortgesetzt werden. Für weitere Details s. Kapitel Nachsorge und Erfolgskontrolle.

3.4.2 Interventionelle Therapieverfahren

3.4.2.1 Perkutane Ablation

3.50 · Konsensbasiertes Statement · geprüft 2024

Bei Patienten mit HCC bis 3 cm sind die Resektion und die Ablation äquivalente Verfahren.

Konsens
Starker Konsens
3.51 · Evidenzbasierte Empfehlung · geprüft 2024

Patienten mit HCC kleiner 3 cm in für die Resektion ungünstiger Lokalisation oder mit eingeschränkter Leberfunktion soll primär eine Thermoablation des Tumors angeboten werden.

Empfehlungsgrad
A: Starke Empfehlung für oder gegen ein Maßnahme - verwendete Ausdrucksweise = soll/soll nicht
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1
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Literatur
[288] [289]
Evidenztabellen (1)HCC Di Costanzo 2015 RFA

In der retrospektiven Kohortenstudie von Nishikawa et al. wurden Patienten mit solitärem HCC < 3cm mit RFA (n = 35) oder chirurgischer Resektion (n = 19) behandelt. Die Ergebnisse zeigen keine signifikanten Unterschiede zwischen beiden Gruppen in Bezug auf das Gesamtüberleben und rezidivfreiem Überleben [290].

Uhlig et al. haben 2019 die Effektivität und das Outcome (u.a. Nachbehandlung) der RFA und der chirurgischen Resektion bei Patienten mit HCC verglichen. Die 2004-2015 United States National Cancer Database von Patienten mit HCC wurde dafür abgefragt, welche Patienten mit RFA oder chirurgischer Resektion behandelt wurden.  Insgesamt wurden18 296 Patienten einbezogen (RFA, n = 8211; chirurgische Resektion, n = 10 085).  Davon wiesen 371 Patienten eine geringgradige Zirrhose oder keine Leberzirrhose (Ishak score 0–4) auf. Die Dauer des Krankenhausaufenthaltes, ungeplante Reintervention und Gesamtüberleben (OS) wurden in der angepassten Kohorte mittels multivariabler Regressionsmodelle verglichen. Die RFA war häufiger bei jungen männlichen Patienten mit hohem Grad an Leberfibrose, hohem Bilirubinspiegel, hohem INR und multifokalem HCC. Die Resektion war signifikant häufiger bei Patienten mit privater Versicherung, hohem Einkommen, hoher Malignität und Stadium, und größerem HCC. Die Ergebnisse der Nachbehandlung waren für die RFA besser als die Resektion in Bezug auf die Dauer des Krankenhausaufenthaltes (Median 1 vs. 5 Tage, p < 0,001) und 30-/90 Tage Mortalität (0 % vs. 4,6 % / 8 %, p < 0,001). Das Gesamtüberleben war vergleichbar für RFA und Resektion bei schwerer Leberfibrose/Zirrhose (5 Jahre OS 37,3 % vs. 39,4 %, p = 0,07). Das Gesamtüberleben in der gesamten Kohorte war für die chirurgische Resektion überlegen (5 Jahre OS 29,9 % vs. 45,7 %, p < 0,01) [291].

Eine Vielzahl weiterer Studien hat die Vergleichbarkeit beider Verfahren bei kleinen Tumoren gezeigt [292], [293], [294]

3.52 · Konsensbasierte Empfehlung · geprüft 2024

Die perkutane Ablation des HCC soll mittels Radiofrequenz-Ablation (RFA) oder Mikrowellen-Ablation (MWA) durchgeführt werden.

Konsens
Starker Konsens

Die RFA und die MWA können über einen perkutanen, laparoskopischen oder offenen Zugang erfolgen. Der perkutane Zugangsweg ist die häufigste Vorgehensweise. Sie stellt den am wenigsten invasiven Zugang für die Durchführung der RFA dar und sollte insbesondere bei Patienten, die für eine offene Tumorresektion nicht geeignet sind oder ein erhöhtes Operationsrisiko (z.B. aufgrund einer fortgeschrittenen Leberzirrhose) aufweisen, grundsätzlich in Betracht gezogen werden. Die Planung, Positionierung und Kontrolle des RF-Applikators oder der MW-Antenne muss für den perkutanen Zugang unter Bildgebung erfolgen, mit CT, US oder MR-Bildgebung. Vorteile der perkutanen RFA gegenüber einem laparoskopischen oder offenen Zugang umfassen:

  • Reduktion von Morbidität
  • Reduzierte postoperative Schmerzsymptomatik
  • Kürzerer Krankenhausaufenthalt
  • Durchführbarkeit häufiger in Sedierung als in Allgemeinanästhesie
  • Kostenreduktion

Für die Zielführung sind multiplanare Echtzeitverfahren mit interaktiven Funktionalitäten von Vorteil, welche sowohl eine genaue Abgrenzung des Tumors als auch eine umfassende Visualisierung der angrenzenden Strukturen ermöglichen. Ultraschall, CT und MRT kommen zum Einsatz. Viele Faktoren beeinflussen letztlich die Wahl des bildgebenden Verfahrens für die Platzierung der RFA-Sonden oder MW-Antenne:

  • Tumorvisibilität,
  • Persönliche Präferenz und Erfahrung des Operateurs,
  • Verfügbarkeit: beinhaltet sowohl Standardmodalitäten als auch dedizierte Instrumente für die Echtzeitbildgebung (z.B. CT-Fluoroskopie) und offene MRT- Geräte mit interventionellem Interface.

Für die Ablation kann die Steuerung der Instrumente während der Instrumentenplatzierung mit US, CT oder MRT durchgeführt werden. Die eindeutigen Vorteile der MR-Bildgebung liegen in dem besseren Gewebekontrast, das Monitoring und die Kontrolle der induzierten Koagulation. Für ein exaktes Monitoring, für die exakte Lokalisation relevanter Nachbarstrukturen während der Ablation sowie für die Kontrolle hat der US seine Limitationen und kann nicht empfohlen werden.

Die perkutane Ethanolinjektion (PEI/PAI), die irreversible Elektroporation (IRE), sowie die Laser- und Kryo-Ablation sollen nicht zur Therapie von HCCs genutzt werden, die für eine Resektion oder Thermoablation mit RFA/MWA geeignet sind. Die Anzahl der klinischen Studien zur IRE, Laser und Kryoablation ist aktuell noch sehr gering. Die IRE hat durch den geringen thermischen Effekt einen potenziellen Vorteil für die Therapie von HCC nah zu den Gallenwegen. Dennoch liegen aktuell wenige Daten mit suffizienter Patientenzahl oder langen Überlebensdaten vor. Die lokale Rezidivrate nach IRE ist für HCC >2,5 cm deutlich höher als nach Behandlung mit RFA, MWA oder Resektion [295], [296], [297].

Die PEI sollte nicht mehr eingesetzt werden. Gemäß der “European Association for the Study of the Liver” aus dem Jahr 2001 wurde die PEI als Standard zur Therapie inoperabler Patienten bzw. irresektabler HCCs empfohlen [298]. In der Folge erschienen mehrere RCTs zum Vergleich von RFA und PEI zur Therapie kleiner HCCs [299], [300], [301], [302], [303]. Insgesamt war in den Studien die RFA der PEI deutlich überlegen. Es zeigte sich aber auch, dass die ausreichende lokale Tumorkontrolle vom Tumordurchmesser abhängig ist. So steigt die lokale Rezidivrate von 4% im ersten Jahr bei HCCs kleiner 2 cm auf 13% bei HCCs zwischen 3-4 cm [300]. Lencioni et al. zeigten in einer randomisierten, kontrollierten Studie, dass die RFA (n = 52) der PEI (n = 50) bzgl. des rezidivfreien Überlebens überlegen ist [296]. Im Vergleich zur PEI generiert die RFA besser reproduzierbare und vorhersagbare Koagulationsnekrosen. Zusätzlich benötigt die RFA deutlich weniger Interventionen zur kompletten Tumorablation als die PEI [295].

Vergleichende Literatur der interventionellen Therapie s. Anhang (Tabelle: Vergleichende Studien Resektion versus Ablation bei HCC < 3 cm, Tabelle: Vergleichsstudien Thermoablation versus Resektion für bis zu drei HCC-Herde mit maximal 3cm, Tabelle: CC ≤ 5 cm: Vergleich Resektion vs. Thermoablation).

3.53 · Evidenzbasierte Empfehlung · geprüft 2024

Bei Patienten mit erhaltener Leberfunktion und gering- oder mäßiggradiger portaler Hypertension soll, bei einem HCC-Herd > 3 cm und < 5 cm, vor einer Thermoablation chemoembolisiert werden.

Empfehlungsgrad
A: Starke Empfehlung für oder gegen ein Maßnahme - verwendete Ausdrucksweise = soll/soll nicht
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2
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Literatur
[304] [305] [306]
Evidenztabellen (1)HCC TACE + Ablation

Wie schon mehrfach histopathologisch nachgewiesen, so konnte auch Fukutomi et al. eine deutliche weitere periläsionale Tumorzellaussaat bei HCC > 3 cm und < 5 cm im Vergleich zu Tumoren ≤ 3 cm nachweisen [307]. Um für diese Situation ein größeres Ablationsareal einschließlich größeren Sicherheitsabstands zu erzielen, soll der Effekt der Thermoablation durch eine vorherige TACE verstärkt werden. Dabei konnten bisher über 200 Studien den synergistischen Effekt beider ablativer Verfahren bestätigen (Auswahl der letzten Jahre s. Anhang Tabelle: TACE plus Thermoablation bis ca. 5 cm und  > 5 cm bis <7 cm). Neue Ergebnisse konnten zeigen, dass die Reihenfolge der Untersuchungen keine Rolle spielt [308].

Die partikelverstärkte TACE führt dabei zu einer verminderten oder vollständigen Devaskularisation des Tumors und seiner Umgebung, was eine zeitnahe Thermoablation in ihrer Wirkung deutlich verstärkt. Hierdurch lassen sich Koagulationszonen sogar bis 7 cm Durchmesser erzielen, sodass bei irresektablen Patienten mit CHILD-A- und CHILD-B-Zirrhose mit adäquater Leberfunktion und nur gering- oder mäßiggradiger portaler Hypertension (Bilirubin < 2 mg/dl; keine Splenomegalie, Thrombozyten > 100.000) in Einzelfällen eine Thermoablation für die Behandlung von HCC > 5 cm und < 7 cm durchgeführt werden kann. Mit verschiedenen Behandlungsprotokollen sind so vergleichbare 5-Jahres-Überlebensraten bis über 70 % erreicht worden (s. Anhang Tabelle: TACE plus Thermoablation bis ca. 5 cm und  > 5 cm bis <7 cm).

Synergistische Wirkungen berichteten auch Smolock et al. über die Kombination TACE und MWA für die Therapie von HCC bis 5cm [309]. Patienten mit HCC zwischen 3 und 5 cm, die mit TACE-Monotherapie oder Kombination TACE + MWA an einer einzigen Institution zwischen 2007 und 2016 behandelt wurden, wurden retrospektiv untersucht. Das Ansprechen auf die Behandlung wurde tumorweise anhand von mRECIST-Kriterien bewertet, wobei das primäre Ergebnis die lokale Tumorprogression (LTP) war. Im Vergleich zur TACE-Monotherapie zeigte die Kombinationstherapie TACE + MWA eine niedrigere Rate von LTP (34,8 % vs. 62,5 %, p = 0,11) als auch eine höhere vollständige Ansprechrate (65,2 % vs. 37,5 %; p = 0,12). Die Zeit bis zum LTP (22,3 Monate vs. 4,2 Monate; p = 0,001) war in der TACE + MWA-Gruppe signifikant länger als bei der TACE-Monotherapie. Die Kombinationstherapie mit TACE und Mikrowellenablation verbessert die lokale Kontrolle und erhöht die Zeit bis zum LTP für 3-5 cm HCC. Der optimale Zeitabstand zwischen Chemoembolisation und Thermoablation sollte 1-2 Wochen betragen. Auch kürzere Intervalle bis hin zur einzeitigen Kombinationstherapie wurden als sicher und effektiv beschrieben [310]. Der Patient sollte nach Durchführung der Chemoembolisation im interdisziplinären Tumorboard wieder vorgestellt werden.

3.4.2.2 Transarterielle Chemoembolisation (TACE)

3.54 · Evidenzbasierte Empfehlung · geprüft 2024

Die TACE soll Patienten mit HCC im intermediären Stadium angeboten werden, wenn keine kurativen Therapieoptionen vorliegen.

Empfehlungsgrad
A: Starke Empfehlung für oder gegen ein Maßnahme - verwendete Ausdrucksweise = soll/soll nicht
Evidenzlevel
2
Konsens
Starker Konsens
Literatur
[311] [312]
Evidenztabellen (1)HCC TACE
3.55 · Evidenzbasiertes Statement · geprüft 2024

Die TACE setzt eine erhaltene Leberfunktion voraus.

Evidenzlevel
2
Konsens
Starker Konsens
Literatur
[313]
Evidenztabellen (1)HCC TACE
3.56 · Konsensbasierte Empfehlung · geprüft 2024

Die TACE soll dem Vaskularisationsmuster der Tumorherde angepasst werden und so selektiv wie möglich erfolgen.

Konsens
Starker Konsens
3.57 · Evidenzbasiertes Statement · geprüft 2024

Konventionelle TACE und Drug-eluting-TACE können als gleichwertige Verfahren angesehen werden.

Evidenzlevel
2
Konsens
Starker Konsens
Literatur
[312] [313]
Evidenztabellen (1)HCC TACE
3.58 · Konsensbasierte Empfehlung · geprüft 2024

Die TACE sollte mehrfach durchgeführt werden, solange ein Ansprechen hierauf nachweisbar ist (CR, PR nach mRECIST) und behandelbare hypervaskularisierte Tumoranteile verbleiben.

Konsens
Starker Konsens
3.59 · Konsensbasierte Empfehlung · geprüft 2024

Die Indikation zur Fortführung der TACE soll nach zwei Behandlungszyklen im Tumorboard überprüft werden.

Konsens
Konsens

Die TACE ist indiziert bei Patienten im BCLC B-Stadium mit multinodulärem oder großem HCC, wenn keine potenziell kurativen Therapieoptionen vorliegen und nach Ausschluss von Kontraindikationen. Kontraindikationen sind:

  • fortgeschrittenes Erkrankungsstadium mit tumorbedingten Symptomen und Reduktion des Allgemeinzustandes (ECOG =/>2)
  • dekompensierte Lebererkrankung (Child-Pugh C)  oder hohe Tumorlast und reduzierte Leberfunktion (Child-Pugh B >7)
  • gesicherte prognoserelevante extrahepatische Metastasierung
  • Komplette Pfortaderthrombose oder komplette hepatofugale Pfortaderperfusion
  • hypovaskularisiertes HCC in CT oder MRT
  • relative Kontraindikation: makroskopische Tumorinvasion der Vena portae, des rechten/linken großen portalen Hauptstammes oder großer Lebervenen in kontrastangehobenem CT, MRT oder US

Ebenso ist die TACE eine Therapieoption für Patienten in den BCLC-Stadien 0 und A, sofern potenziell kurative Verfahren wie Ablation und Resektion nicht möglich sind. Ggf. kann auch eine Kombination der TACE mit der Ablation erfolgen. Die TACE ist eine mögliche Therapieoption für Patienten, die nach adäquater Aufklärung andere Therapieoptionen nicht wünschen.

Retrospektive Analysen ergaben Hinweise darauf, dass die Ergebnisse der TACE im Hinblick auf Gesamtüberleben und progressionsfreies Überleben verbessert werden können, wenn bei der Indikationsstellung innerhalb der Kriterien des BCLC B-Stadiums eine weitere Differenzierung vorgenommen wird. Hierbei sind insbesondere die Größe und Anzahl der Tumorherde sowie der Schweregrad der Leberfunktionsstörung von Bedeutung.

Die Vaskularisation der Tumorherde spielt eine wichtige Rolle im Hinblick auf die Ergebnisse der TACE. Eine arterielle Hypervaskularisation, eine selektive arterielle Tumorversorgung über einzelne Feeder und Pseudoenkapsulation lassen bessere Ergebnisse erwarten, als dies bei gering vaskularisierten und diffus arteriell versorgten Tumoren der Fall ist. Auch Tumorherde an der „Wasserscheide“ zwischen den arteriellen Versorgungsterritorien stellen erhöhte Anforderungen an die interventionelle Behandlungstechnik. Dies beinhaltet eine hochwertige intraprozedurale Bildgebung, ggf. auch mit Cone Beam CT unter arterieller Perfusion zur Klärung der selektiven Vaskularisation.

Die Wirksamkeit der TACE ist umso besser und nebenwirkungsärmer, je selektiver die transarterielle Therapie erfolgt und je ausgeprägter und umfassender der devaskularisierende Effekt der Embolisationsmaßnahmen ist. Bei Vorliegen einer Tumorinvasion in die Vena portae, den rechten oder linken Pfortaderhauptstamm und in große Lebervenen kann von Behandlungen mit einer TACE keine Verbesserung der Prognose erwartet werden.

Grundsätzlich besteht im Rahmen der TACE das Risiko einer regionalen Lebernekrose, insbesondere wenn in diesem Gebiet eine portale Perfusion fehlt. Der Lebernekrose kann eine funktionelle Dekompensation folgen. Liegen aber nur segmentale portale Tumorinvasionen vor und bestehen bezüglich der selektiven arteriellen Devaskularisation günstige Voraussetzungen mit segmentaler oder subsegmentaler Durchführung der TACE, kann diese effizient und nebenwirkungsarm erfolgen.

Vor, während und nach TACE soll eine adaptierte supportive Therapie durchgeführt werden. Hierzu sind eine ausreichende Analgesie, Antiemese, Hydratation, ggf. Antibiose erforderlich.

Konventionelle Lipiodol-TACE und Drug-eluting Bead TACE können als annähernd gleichwertige Verfahren in Abhängigkeit vom individuellen Risikoprofil und der Präferenz des Behandlers eingesetzt werden (s. Anhang). Durch Drug-eluting Bead TACE können Nebeneffekte des Doxorubicins gemindert werden. Daher kann bei Patienten die diesbezüglich besondere Risiken aufweisen, eine Bevorzugung dieser Behandlungstechnik erwogen werden. Bisher konnte kein Nachweis erbracht werden, dass sich die Überlebensprognose der Patienten durch Drug-eluting Bead TACE im Vergleich zur konventionellen TACE verbessern lässt.

Zur TACE sollten Antrazykline (Doxorubicin, Epirubicin) oder Platinderivate verwendet werden [314]. Auch die Verwendung von Mitomycin C ist möglich. Bei Verwendung von Doxorubicin darf aufgrund kardiotoxischer Nebeneffekte eine kumulative Dosis von 450 mg/m² nicht überschritten werden.

Alleinige Embolisationen können nicht generell empfohlen werden, sind aber auch wirksam. Dies wurde insbesondere in der Studie von Llovet et al. gezeigt [315]. Für alleinige Chemolipiodolisation und alleinige intraarterielle Chemotherapie konnte bisher keine ausreichende Wirksamkeit nachgewiesen werden. In kleineren Fallserien wurden Kombinationen verschiedener Zytostatika bei fortgeschrittenem HCC mit inhomogenen Ergebnissen eingesetzt.

Da die TACE im Regelfall bei Patienten im BCLC B-Stadium mit multiplen und/oder großen Tumorherden indiziert wird, muss diese ggf. mehrfach durchgeführt werden um eine komplette Devaskularisation aller Tumorherde zu erreichen. Ziel ist die komplette Devaskularisation aller Tumorherde unter weitgehender Schonung des nicht betroffenen Leberparenchyms. Dies erfordert zahlreiche selektive und superselektive Katheterisierungen unter Verwendung von Mikrokathetern und mitunter aufwändiger intraprozeduraler Diagnostik. Die in einer Therapiesitzung applizierten Mengen von Embolisaten und Zytostatika sind limitiert, um Nebenwirkungen zu begrenzen und Komplikationen zu vermeiden. Insbesondere Lipiodol sollte nicht in Mengen von mehr als 10-15 ml appliziert werden.

Eine postinterventionelle Verlaufskontrolle sollte innerhalb 4 - 12 Wochen nach TACE erfolgen. Hierzu ist ein adäquates Restaging mit mehrphasiger MRT oder CT erforderlich mit anschließender Remissionsbeurteilung unter Anwendung der mRECIST-Kriterien oder der LI-RADS TR-Kriterien. Bei Durchführung der TACE Therapie kann eine zusätzliche native Phase der Leber zur spätarteriellen, portalvenösen und spätvenösen Phase ergänzt werden; dies ist insbesondere bei einer TACE mit Lipiodol zu erwägen.

Bei konventioneller TACE ist im Regelfall auch eine native CT der Leber 1-3 Tage nach der Behandlung erforderlich, um das Ergebnis hinsichtlich der Einlagerung des Embolisats Lipiodol in die gewünschte Zielregion aber auch in unerwünschte andere Gebiete zu überprüfen.

Eine Neubewertung der Therapieoptionen in einer interdisziplinären Tumorkonferenz sollte in folgenden Situationen erfolgen:

  • regelhaft nach 2 TACE
  • bei zunehmender Obliteration der tumorversorgenden arteriellen Gefäße und damit fehlendem arteriellen Zugang zum Tumor
  • bei Erreichen einer kumulativen Dosis Doxorubicin von 450 mg/m²
  • bei Auftreten von Kontraindikationen, wie z.B. signifikanter Verschlechterung der Leberfunktion, extrahepatischer Metastasierung, Tumorinvasion großer portaler oder hepatischer Venen, Verschlechterung des Allgemeinzustandes der Patienten mit tumorbedingten Symptomen (ECOG =/>2).

 

Ergänzende Literatur s. Anhang: Tabelle: Prospektiv randomisierte Vergleichsstudien bei Patienten mit HCC mit Nachweis eines Überlebensvorteils durch TACE versus supportive Therapie (BSC, 
Tabelle: Vergleichsstudien konventioneller TACE und supportiver Therapie, Tabelle: Ergebnisse konventioneller TACE bei HCC mit Infiltration portaler Venen definierter Ebenen, Tabelle: Ergebnisse prospektiv randomisierter Vergleichsstudien konventioneller TACE und DE TACE bei HCC, Tabelle: Ergebnisse retrospektiver Vergleichsstudien konventionelle TACE und DE TACE bei HCC, Tabelle: Metaanalysen zum Vergleich konventioneller TACE und DE TACE bei HCC

3.4.2.3 Transarterielle Radioembolisation (TARE) / Selektive Interne Radiotherapie (SIRT)

3.60 · Evidenzbasierte Empfehlung · geprüft 2024

Die TARE kann nach Beschluss des Tumorboards bei Patienten mit erhaltener Leberfunktion im intermediären HCC-Stadium anstelle einer TACE eingesetzt werden.

Empfehlungsgrad
0: offene Empfehlung (Option) bzgl. einer Maßnahme - verwendete Ausdrucksweise = kann
Evidenzlevel
2
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Literatur
[316] [317] [318] [319]
Evidenztabellen (1)HCC TARE
3.61 · Konsensbasierte Empfehlung · neu 2024

Die TARE soll anhand einer personalisierten Dosimetrie („Partitionsmodel“) erfolgen.

Literatur
[320] [321]

Die Möglichkeit zur Durchführung einer transarteriellen Therapie bei HCC ist von der Perfusion, der Anzahl und Größe der HCC-Herde abhängig. Prinzipiell gibt es aktuell einige Studien, die eine Vergleichbarkeit der TARE mit der TACE belegen – jedoch keine Überlegenheit eines der beiden Verfahren herausarbeiten konnten [322], [323].

In einer Phase-II-Studie (Patientenzahl für intraarterielle Therapie = 54), in der die Chemoembolisation (cTACE, n = 21) mit der TARE (n = 24) verglichen wurde, war die mediane Zeit bis zur Progression (TTP) in der TARE Gruppe (TTP > 26 Monate) signifikant besser, als in der cTACE Gruppe (TTP  6,8 Monate; p = 0,0012), das mediane Überleben, zensiert bei Lebertransplantation, lag jedoch in der TARE-Gruppe bei 18,6 Monaten und in der TACE-Gruppe bei 17,7 Monaten (p = 0,99) [228]. In einer 2017 publizierten Metaanalyse, welche insgesamt 3 randomisiert kontrollierte Studien (konventionelle TACE vs. TARE bei HCC) [6-8] inkludierte (n= 215 (110 TARE, 105 TACE) [323], konnte weder ein Unterschied im Überleben (HR: 0,92,  p = 0,68) noch im Hinblick auf ein Auftreten schwerwiegender, unerwünschter Ereignisse (HR: 0,45, p = 0,48) festgestellt werden [323]. Eine weitere, von Pitton et al. publizierte Studie, die randomisiert DEB-TACE mit TARE verglichen hat, konnte ebenfalls keinen statistisch signifikanten Effekt im Überleben (n=24 (12 DEB-TACE, 12 TARE) HR: 1,05; p = 0,93) nachweisen [324].

Lobo et al. [325] untersuchte die verfügbare Evidenz zum Vergleich der klinischen Ergebnisse nach TARE und TACE für inoperable HCCs (n = 553 (269 TARE, 284 TACE), wobei kein Unterschied im Überleben von bis zu 4 Jahren zwischen den beiden Gruppen (HR: 1,06; p = 0,567) nachweisbar war. Bei vergleichbaren Überlebensdaten wurde von Salem et al. [326] jedoch für TARE im Vergleich zu TACE eine höhere Lebensqualität und von Kolligs et al. [322] die Vergleichbarkeit einer single session  TARE mit 3,4 TACE bei den eingeschlossenen HCC-Patienten beschrieben.

In einer retrospektiven Multicenter-Analyse an 325 HCC Patienten zeigten Sangro et al., dass therapienaive und vortherapierte (OP, TACE oder RFA) HCC-Patienten, nach der TARE vergleichbare Überlebenszeiten aufzeigen: BCLC A: 22,1 (15,1-45,9) vs. 30,9 Monate (19,6-46,8); p = 0,243); BCLC B: 18,4  (11,2-19,4) vs. 22,8 Monate (10,9-34,2); p = 0,815; und BCLC C: 8,8 (7,1-10,8) vs. 10,8 Monate (7,7-12,6); p = 0,976 [327]. Des Weiteren, konnte Jonson et al. [328] in seiner retrospektiven Auswertung von 40 Patienten zeigen, dass bei Patienten, bei denen sich trotz TACE ein Progress einstellte oder eine Pfortaderthrombose entstand, die TARE sicher durchgeführt werden konnte (41% complete response, 19 % partial response, 7 % stable disease und 33 % progressive disease). Das mediane progressionsfreie Überleben und das Gesamtüberleben lagen bei 90 und 257 Tagen.

Mehrere Studien belegen die Wirksamkeit, sowie die Sicherheit der TARE bei Patienten mit Pfortader(teil-)thrombosen [329], [330], [331], [332], [333]. Allen Studien gemeinsam war, dass Patienten – unabhängig vom BCLC-Stadium - ein signifikant schlechteres Überleben bei Vorliegen einer Pfortaderthrombose hatten. Allerdings kann die transarterielle Therapie ohne schwere Nebenwirkungen durchgeführt werden. Ein Vergleich zwischen unterschiedlichen Modalitäten der Anwendung einer Radiotherapie bei Patienten mit Pfortaderthrombose erfolgte im Rahmen einer Metaanalyse mit 2513 Patienten. Diese Analyse konnte zeigen, dass sich die unterschiedlichen Strahlenbehandlungen statistisch nicht signifikant voneinander im gepoolten 1-Jahres-Überleben unterscheiden: 3-dimensionale konforme Radiotherapie (3DCRT) 43,8 %, TARE 46,5 % und stereotaktischen Radiotherapie (SBRT) 48,5 % [334].

Neuere Studien weisen darauf hin, dass eine personalisierte Dosimetrie das therapeutische Ergebnis einer TARE verbessert [335][336]. Eine randomisierte kontrollierte Studie bei lokal fortgeschrittenem Hepatozellulärem Karzinom (mindestens eine Läsion > 7cm) zeigte ein OS von 26,7 Monaten bei personalisierter Dosimetrie (n=31) vs. 10,7 Monaten bei Standarddosimetrie (n=29) (p<0,01) [320]. Eine weitere retrospektive, multizentrische, einarmige Studie (n=162) zeigte einen Vorteil bei singulären Tumoren, die selektiv behandelt wurden, mit einer ORR von 88,3% und einem 3-Jahres-Gesamtüberleben von 86,6% [337]. Von diesen Studien wird die Durchführung der TARE als personalisierter Behandlungsansatz mit klaren Zieldosierungen empfohlen.

Ergänzende Literatur S. Anhang (Tabelle: Literaturübersicht zur TARE und Tabelle: Ergänzende Literaturübersicht zur TARE mit Angaben zur Dosimetrie)

Neben den Vergleichen zwischen TARE und TACE gab es auch verschiedene Studien, die einen Vergleich zwischen TARE und Sorafenib durchführten. In der SARAH-Studie erfolgte der Vergleich von 237 Patienten mit TARE und 222 Patienten mit Sorafenib [338]. Einschlusskriterien waren u.a. ECOG PS 0 - 1, Child-Pugh ≤ B7 und entweder (i) lokal fortgeschrittenes HCC, (ii) Rezidiv eines zuvor erfolgreich therapierten HCC ohne Möglichkeit einer Resektion, Lebertransplantation bzw. Thermoablation oder (iii) HCC mit 2 nicht erfolgreichen Versuchen einer TACE. Der Unterschied im medianen Gesamtüberleben war statistisch nicht signifikant mit 8,0 Monaten im TARE-Arm und 9,9 Monaten im Sorafenib-Arm. Die Anzahl von Patienten mit mindestens einer behandlungsassoziierten Nebenwirkung ≥ Grad 3 war im TARE-Arm niedriger mit 41% gegenüber dem Sorafenib-Arm mit 63%. Eine Analyse der Lebensqualität mit dem EORTC QLQ-C30 Fragebogen ergab für den TARE-Arm ein signifikant besseres Ergebnis für den globalen Gesundheitsstatus. Anzumerken ist allerdings, dass im TARE-Arm 53 der 237 Patienten keine TARE erhalten haben, davon wurden 26 mit Sorafenib behandelt. Zusätzlich wurden 52 Patienten im TARE-Arm nach Progress mit Sorafenib behandelt, während lediglich 2 Patienten aus dem Sorafenib- Arm eine TARE nach Progress erhalten haben. Die Zeit bis zur Progression der Tumorerkrankung im Bereich der Leber war für die TARE signifikant länger, allerdings konnte dies nicht mit einer Verlängerung des Gesamtüberlebens assoziiert werden.

In der SIRveNIB-Studie wurden Patienten mit BCLC B oder C, ECOG PS 0 – 1, Child-Pugh ≤ B7 und HCC-Läsionen ≥ 10 mm ohne Möglichkeit einer Resektion, Lebertransplantation oder lokal ablativer Therapie eingeschlossen [339]. Die Studie wurde an 15 Zentren im asiatisch-pazifischen Raum mit insgesamt 360 Patienten durchgeführt. Im TARE-Arm erhielten 52 von 182 Patienten keine TARE. Der Unterschied im medianen Gesamtüberleben war statistisch nicht signifikant und betrug in der TARE-Gruppe 8,8 Monate und in der Sorafenib-Gruppe 10,0 Monate. Weniger Patienten in der TARE-Gruppe zeigten Nebenwirkungen Grad 3 oder höher (28% vs. 51%). Ein erheblicher „cross-over“ von Sorafenib in der TARE-Gruppe wie bei der SARAH-Studie wurde für SIRveNIB nicht berichtet, allerdings fehlen bei ca. 50% der Patienten in jedem Arm Angaben über eine mögliche Folgetherapie.

In beiden Studien, SARAH und SIRveNIB zeigte der Sorafenib-Arm ein deutlich schlechteres Überleben als in den beiden aktuellsten Phase-III-Studien zur Systemtherapie. Für weitere Informationen zur Systemtherapie, s. Kapitel Systemtherapie.

3.4.3 Stereotaxie

3.62 · Evidenzbasierte Empfehlung · geprüft 2024
Eine Hochpräzisionsradiotherapie (Stereotactic Body Radiotherapy; SBRT) sollte geprüft werden, wenn andere lokale Therapieverfahren nicht oder nur mit Einschränkungen möglich sind.
Empfehlungsgrad
B: Empfehlung für oder gegen eine Maßnahme - verwendete Ausdrucksweise = sollte/sollte nicht
Evidenzlevel
2

88% Zustimmung (84% Zustimmung unter Mitberechnung der Enthaltungen aufgrund von Interessenkonflikten)

Konsens
Konsens
Literatur
[340] [341] [342] [343] [344] [345]
Evidenztabellen (1)HCC SBRT
Modernen Strahlentherapie-Techniken, wie vor allem die bildgeführte und adaptive Strahlentherapie (IGRT, ART), die Körperstereotaxie (Stereotactic Body Radiotherapy, SBRT), die Protonentherapie sowie die interstitielle Brachytherapie, sind Verfahren mit hochkonformaler Dosisverteilung und ermöglichen die Verabreichung von sehr hohen ablativen Dosen bei gleichzeitiger Schonung von Risikoorganen. Dadurch kann das Risiko einer strahleninduzierten Lebererkrankung (RILD, radiation-induced liver disease) und von Nebenwirkungen an kritischen Nachbarorganen wie Magen, Duodenum, Dünndarm und Kolon deutlich reduziert werden. Durch diese Entwicklungen kann die SBRT zunehmend für inoperable HCC und zum Bridging im Rahmen der Transplantation eingesetzt werden.
Die inzwischen vorliegenden Daten haben zu einer Aufnahme der Strahlentherapie in die Leitlinien der European Society for Medical Oncology (ESMO), NCCN, der Asian-Pacific Association for the Study of the Liver (APASL) und der Korean Liver Cancer Association geführt [346][346][347].
Eine Metaanalyse mit systematischem Review zum Vergleich der SBRT mit der RFA identifizierte sechs Studien, drei BCLC-Faktor-gematcht und drei ungematcht [341] mit  1241 Patienten mit RFA und 866 Patienten mit SBRT In den gematchten Studien hatten Patienten, die mit einer SBRT behandelt wurden, ein vergleichbares Überleben (HR 0,89; 95% CI 0,74–1,08; p = 0,24) und eine signifikant bessere Lokalkontrolle (HR 0,39; 95% CI 0,30–0,51; p < 0.001). Schlussfolgernd ergab sich bei adäquatem Matching der BCLC-Faktoren in der Summe ein äquivalentes Überleben und eine bessere Lokalkontrolle nach SBRT im Vergleich zur RFA. Eine weitere 2023 publizierte Metaanalyse zum Vergleich der RFA und SBRT von Rim und Kollegen [342] kommt zu ähnlichen Werten für die OR hinsichtlich der lokalen Kontrolle zugunsten der SBRT (0.452 (95% CI: 0.362–0.565, p <0.001) und ohne einen statistisch signifikanten Unterschied beim Gesamtüberleben (1.253 (95% CI: 0.920–1.707, p = 0.153).

In der prospektive randomisierten NRG/RTOG 1112 Studie, ( Phase 3) wurde die SBRT mit begleitender Sorafenib-Therapie mit der alleinigen Sorafenib-Behandlung verglichen hatte [343]. Eingeschlossen wurden 197 Patienten mit einem HCC, das entweder nicht geeignet war für eine RFA, TACE oder Resektion oder ein Rezidiv nach einem der genannten Verfahren. Der primäre Endpunkt war das Gesamtüberleben. Der kumulative Diameter aller Läsionen (maximal 5) durfte 20 cm nicht überschreiten. Das mediane Gesamtüberleben lag in Kombinationsarm aus SBRT und Sorafenib bei 15,8 Monaten (90 % Konfidenzintervall 11,4 - 19,2) und im Standardarm bei 12,3 Monaten (10,6 - 14,3,). In der multivariaten Analyse war die Kombinationsbehandlung mit SBRT und Sorafenib mit einem signifikant längeren Gesamtüberleben (HR 0,72, 95% CI 0,52-0,99) und progressionsfreien Überleben (9,2 versus 5,5 Monate, p=0,0001) assoziiert. Hinsichtlich der drittgradigen Nebenwirkungen ergaben sich keine Unterschiede zwischen beiden Therapiearmen. Zu erwähnen ist jedoch, dass sich die systemtherapeutische Standardtherapie in der Behandlung des HCC zwischenzeitlich verändert hat.

Eine weitere Metaanalyse von 37 Studien berichtete speziell über Patienten mit Portalvenenthrombose, die entweder mit einer SBRT, einer 3D-konformalen Radiotherapie (3D-CRT) oder einer TARE behandelt wurden. Die Studien schlossen 208 Patienten mit SBRT, 1903 Patienten mit 3D-CRT und 402 Patienten mit TARE ein, 88 % der Patienten hatten eine Thrombose des Portalvenenstammes. Die medianen Überlebensraten für SBRT, 3D-CRT und TARE lagen bei 14 Monaten, 11,6 Monaten und 9,5 Monaten (p > 0,05). Die Lokalkontrollraten lagen dabei bei 86,9 %, 82,8 % und 57,5 % (p < 0,001), auch die Ansprechraten waren für die perkutane Radiotherapie (SBRT und 3D-CRT) höher als für die TARE. Die Verträglichkeit war dabei für die SBRT besser (keine Grad ≥3 Toxizitäten) als für die 3D-CRT (3 Fälle mit Grad ≥3) [344].

Der Vergleich zwischen TACE und SBRT für BCLC-Stadium B und C Patienten ohne Portalvenenthrombose wurde in einer Propensity-Score-Analyse bei Patienten mit 1 bis 2 Tumoren durchgeführt und fand eine 2-Jahres-Lokalkontrollrate von 91 % nach SBRT gegenüber 23 % nach TACE, doch gab es keinen Unterschied hinsichtlich des Überlebens zwischen SBRT und TACE [340]. In einer  prospektiven nicht-randomisierten Beobachtungsstudie (“HERACLES”), wurde die TACE mit der SBRT verglichen. Dabei lag die kumulative Inzidenz einer lokalen Progression nach 1, 2- und 3 Jahren bei 6 %, 6 % und 6 % nach der SBRT und bei  28 %, 39 % und 65 % nach TACE (p = 0.02)  Die Lebensqualität war nach der SBRT nicht eingeschränkt und das Risiko für drittgradige Nebenwirkungen gering [345]. Bei der Durchführung der SBRT sollten Qualitätskriterien wie z.B. der “DEGRO AG Stereotaxie” berücksichtigt werden [348].

Protonentherapie

Die Protonentherapie kann wegen der fehlenden Austrittsdosis von Protonen (Bragg-Peak) nach dem Erreichen des Zielvolumens eine gute Schonung normalen Lebergewebes physikalisch erleichtern. Daten von mehr als 500 Patienten aus prospektiven und retrospektiven Studien [349] [350][351][352][353][354][355][356] berichten hohe Lokalkontrollraten auch bei großen HCC-Läsionen. Ob die Protonentherapie wirklich äquivalent oder überlegen gegenüber der SBRT für die lokale Tumorkontrolle ist, muss derzeit noch unbeantwortet bleiben, da keine randomisierten Studien vorliegt. Darüber hinaus ist eine Protonentherapie derzeit nur an wenigen Zentren verfügbar.

Interstitielle Brachytherapie

Insgesamt lässt sich aus der Literatur zur interstitiellen Brachytherapie bisher keine allgemeine Empfehlung ableiten, sie kommt bisher in nur wenigen Zentren zum Einsatz [357] [358][359] Durch eine interstitielle Brachytherapie können HCCs im Sinne einer lokal ablativen Strategie behandelt werden, und die Therapie wird nach invasiver Katheteranlage in typischer Weise in einer einzigen Sitzung durchgeführt. Die interstitielle Brachytherapie kann insbesondere bei größeren HCCs oder bei HCCs an Lokalisationen, welche für eine thermische Ablation schlecht zugänglich sind (Zentral; in der Nähe zu großen Gefäßen oder Risikoorganen) eingesetzt werden. Zu den Vorteilen gehören eine genaue Planung der Ablation und Toxizität auf der Grundlage einer sehr präzisen Bestrahlungsplanung und einer Abschätzung der Dosisexposition der Risikoorgane. Eine randomisierte Phase 2 Studie zeigte außerdem bessere lokale Kontrollraten im Vergleich zur TACE [358].

SBRT nach TACE

Kürzlich publizierten Comito et al. eine randomisierte monozentrische Phase III-Studie, die bei Patienten mit inkompletter Remission nach einem Zyklus TA(C)E eine alleinige weitere TA(C)E mit der Kombination aus TA(C)E und stereotaktischer Radiotherapie verglich [360]. Die Rekrutierung wurde bei vorzeitigem Erreichen der erforderlichen Events nach Rekrutierung von 41 der geplanten 50 Patienten beendet. Etwa die Hälfte der Patienten hatte bereits vor Studieneinschluss eine lokale Therapie der Leber erhalten. Die lokale Tumorkontrolle (primärer Endpunkt) wurde durch die zusätzliche stereotaktische Radiotherapie signifikant verbessert (Median nicht erreicht vs. 8 Monate; HR 0,15; p = 0,0002). Auch das progressionsfreie Überleben wurde signifikant verbessert (median 9 vs. 4 Monate; HR 0,43; p = 0,016). Dahingegen zeigten sich hinsichtlich des distanten rezidivfreien Überlebens und des Gesamtüberlebens keine signifikanten Unterschiede. Die Toxizität war in beiden Armen vergleichbar, es trat lediglich eine Grad 3-Toxizität auf (Sepsis im TA(C)E-Arm).

Die Kombination aus zwei Zyklen DEB-TACE gefolgt von einer stereotaktischen Radiotherapie wurde kürzlich in einer einarmigen monozentrischen Phase II-Studie mit 31 Patienten mit einem solitären HCC mit einer Größe von 4-7 cm untersucht [361]. Alle Patienten waren nicht für eine Resektion oder Transplantation geeignet. Alle Patienten erhielten zwei DEB-TACE innerhalb von 4 Wochen, gefolgt von einer stereotaktischen Radiotherapie nach 1-2 Wochen. Die Ansprechrate nach mRECIST lag bei 91 %, 63 % der Patienten wiesen eine komplette Remission auf. Das mediane progressionsfreie Überleben betrug 35 Monate, das mediane Gesamtüberleben war noch nicht erreicht. Zwei Patienten mit bekannten Ösophagusvarizen und vorangegangenen Blutungsereignissen verstarben an Varizenblutungen. Drei Patienten wiesen eine Verschlechterung des Child-Pugh-Stadiums um ≥2 Punkte auf, einer hiervon  mit einer Blutung mit konsekutivem Leberversagen auf.

Eine randomisiert-kontrollierte Studie  aus Südkorea randomisierte 90 Patienten mit HCC und Makrogefäßinvasion in eine Behandlung mit Sorafenib 400 mg 2x tgl. oder eine Kombination aus TACE (alle 6 Wochen bis zum Progress) und einer perkutanen Radiotherapie mit 45 Gy in 2,5-3 Gy Einzeldosis [362]. Radiotherapie wurde innerhalb von 3 Wochen nach der ersten TACE-Sitzung begonnen. Der mediane Tumordurchmesser betrug 9,3 cm. Das progressionsfreie Überleben nach 12 Wochen (primärer Endpunkt) betrug 86,7% im Kombinationsarm vs. 34,3% im Sorafenib-Arm (p < 0,001). Ebenso zeigten sich signifikante Vorteile hinsichtlich des radiologischen Ansprechens (28,9% vs. 4,4%; p = 0,002), der Zeit bis zum Progress (31,0 Wochen vs. 11,7 Wochen; HR 0,28; p < 0,001), sowie des Gesamtüberlebens (median 55 vs. 43 Wochen; HR 0,61; p = 0,04) im Kombinationsarm. Hinsichtlich der Toxizität zeigten sich keine signifikanten Unterschiede.

In einer Metaanalyse  verglichen Huo und Eslick die Kombination aus TACE und Radiotherapie mit der alleinigen TACE. Insgesamt wurden 25 Studien, hiervon 11 RCTs, mit 2577 Patienten in die Analyse eingeschlossen. In 18 von 25 Studien wurden Patienten mit Portalvenenthrombose eingeschlossen [363]. Die Durchführung der TACE und Radiotherapie in den eingeschlossenen Studien war heterogen und die Qualität der Studien insgesamt mäßig. Statistisch bestand hinsichtlich einiger Endpunkte Anhalt für einen Publikationsbias. Das mediane Gesamtüberleben betrug in der Kombinationsgruppe 22,7 Monate und in der alleinigen TACE-Gruppe 13,5 Monate (p < 0,001). Dieser Vorteil war konsistent über alle Zeitpunkte unabhängig von der Art der Studie und der Bestrahlungstechnik vorhanden. Gleiches galt für die signifikante Verbesserung der radiologischen Ansprechrate in der Kombinationsgruppe. Das Risiko für Magen- und Duodenalulzera, sowie einen Anstieg der Alaninamintransferase oder des Gesamtbilirubins war in der Kombinationsgruppe signifikant erhöht.

3.4.4 Nachsorge und Erfolgskontrolle

3.63 · Konsensbasierte Empfehlung · modifiziert 2024

Folgende Kontrollen sind nach Ablation/Resektion bzw. nach jedem TACE-Zyklus empfohlen mittels mehrphasischer Konstrastmittel-gestützter CT oder dynamischer MRT: 

  • Erfolgskontrolle nach 4-12 Wochen
  • Erfolgskontrolle nach Abschluss der SBRT frühestens nach 12 Wochen
  • Verlaufskontrollen im ersten Jahr alle drei Monate und im zweiten Jahr alle 3-6 Monate.

Konsens
Starker Konsens
ÄnderungshinweisErfolgskontrollen nach lokaler Therapie sollten mittels biphasischer CECT oder dynamischer MRT in einem Intervall von 4-12 Wochen nach Ablation/Resektion bzw. nach jedem TACE-Zyklus erfolgen.
3.64 · Konsensbasierte Empfehlung · geprüft 2024

Nach Abschluss der Nachsorge sollen die Patienten wieder in das Früherkennungsprogramm mit Ultraschall alle 6 Monate eingeschlossen werden.

Konsens
Starker Konsens
3.65 · Konsensbasierte Empfehlung · modifiziert 2024

Die Remissionsbeurteilung nach Ablation / TACE / TARE soll nach standardisierten Kriterien erfolgen (mRECIST, EASL oder LI-RADS-TR).

Konsens
Starker Konsens
ÄnderungshinweisDie Remissionsbeurteilung nach Ablation/TACE/TARE soll nach mRECIST/EASL erfolgen.

Für die quantitative Abschätzung des Ansprechens nach interventioneller und systemischer Therapie des HCCs wurden die mRECIST-Kriterien eingeführt mit der Einteilung des Therapieansprechens in Complete Response (CR), Partial Response (PR), Stable Disease (SD) oder Progressive Disease (PD) [364]. Diese mRECIST Kriterien basieren auf den RECIST 1.1 Kriterien, wobei im Besonderen die vitalen HCC-Anteile ausschließlich in der arteriellen Kontrastmittel-Phase entweder in der MRT und CT ausgemessen werden. In einer Korrelation des CT-graphischen Therapieansprechens mittels mRECIST im Vergleich zur Pathologie nach Lebertransplantation zeigte sich in 178 Patienten, dass mRECIST das Ansprechen nach TACE überbewerten. mRECIST erlaubt aber zuverlässig eine Unterscheidung von Respondern und Nicht-Respondern [364].

In einer Meta-Analyse konnte gezeigt werden, dass mittels mRECIST im Vergleich zu RECIST 1.1 das Therapieansprechen (objective response rate (ORR) von systemischen Therapien (TKI) besser identifiziert wird (15.9% vs 7.8%, p<0.001), jedoch der Tumorprogress (disease control rate (DCR) identisch war (68.4% vs 67.2%, p=0.5) [365].

Das Liver Imaging /Reporting and Data System (LI-RADS) standardisiert die Interpretation und Berichterstattung von diagnostischen bildgebenden Untersuchungen für Patienten mit einem erhöhten Risiko für die Entstehung eines HCC. LI-RADS fasst die relevanten CT- und MRT-Merkmale primär für die Diagnostik zusammen [136].  Seit der Version von 2018 (LI-RADS v2018) werden zudem auch qualitative Bildmerkmale für eine nicht-invasive Beurteilung, ob noch vitale HCC Anteile vorliegen, unter LR-TR beschrieben mit den 3 Kategorien vital, avital oder uneindeutig. In einer systemischen Analyse wurde die Aussagekraft von LR-TR im Vergleich zu mRECIST zur nicht-invasiven Diagnose eines vitalen HCC nach lokoregionaler Therapie analysiert [366]. Hierzu wurden 4 Studien eingeschlossen mit 430 HCC Patienten und 631 behandelten HCC Herden. Die LR-TR-Kategorie "vital" demonstrierte eine signifikant höhere gepoolte Spezifität (p < 0,01) verglichen mit mRECIST, aber eine vergleichbare gepoolte Sensitivität (p = 0,53). 

Bis zum heutigen Zeitpunkt hat sich jedoch beide Systeme in Deutschland für die Diagnostik und Therapiebeurteilung nicht flächendeckend in der Regelversorgung durchgesetzt [367][368].

Die postinterventionelle Verlaufskontrolle zur Beurteilung der Therapieeffektivität und somit des Therapieerfolges ist ein entscheidendes prognostisches Qualitätsmerkmal einer lokalen Therapie [369]. Allein aus diesem Grund ist eine Nachsorge nach Ablation eines HCC absolut erforderlich. Neben der morphologischen Beurteilung der behandelten intrahepatischen Läsion und somit der Effektivität des lokalablativen Therapieverfahrens dient die Bildgebung der Detektion postinterventioneller Komplikationen und im weiteren Verlauf auch des erneuten lokalen intra- und extrahepatischen Stagings [370]. Eine Kontrolle nach Ablation, TACE oder Resektion sollte 4-12 Wochen nach Intervention erfolgen.

Als derzeit bestes bildgebendes Verfahren in der Nachsorge gilt die MRT idealerweise mit dynamischer Kontrastmitteluntersuchung. Eine additive MRCP ist je nach zusätzlicher klinischer Fragestellung (z.B. Gallengangsstenose oder Nekrose) optional. Als weitere Methode z.B. bei Kontraindikationen zur MRT oder bei erschwerten Untersuchungsbedingungen (z.B. Adipositas, Aszites, wenig kooperativen Patienten) wird eine triphasische Multischicht-CT mit dynamischer Kontrastmitteluntersuchung empfohlen [371], [372], [373]. Gemäß LI-RADS sollte das triphasische CT der Leber zum Response-Monitoring eine spätarterielle (nach 10-20 s), portalvenöse (60-80 s) und spätvenöse (2-5 min) Kontrastmittelphase beinhalten, im Falle einer TACE mit Lipiodol kann eine weitere native Kontrastmittelphase ergänzt werden [135].

Die kontrastmittelgestützte Sonographie hat trotz ihrer, dem MRT vergleichbaren Aussagekraft hinsichtlich der lokalen Befundung in der Leber, eine deutlich schlechtere Sensitivität und Spezifität im extrahepatischen Staging [374], [375], [376]. Aufgrund der postinterventionellen Umbauvorgänge im Ablationsareal ist eine hinsichtlich des lokalen Therapieerfolges aussagefähige bildgebende Verlaufskontrolle frühestens nach 4-6 Wochen sinnvoll und dann im weiteren Verlauf innerhalb des ersten postinterventionellen Jahres alle 3 Monate. Nach einem Jahr lokaler Tumorfreiheit erfolgte in Studien die lokale Bildkontrolle alle 6 Monate für insgesamt 5 Jahre [377]. Bei hohem Risiko für ein Rezidiv oder Zweitkarzinom in einer Leberzirrhose, erfolgt hier jedoch die Empfehlung zur Überführung der Patienten in halbjährliche bildmorphologische Kontrollen im Rahmen der Vorsorgeuntersuchungen. Die postinterventionelle Reduktion des AFP-Wertes nach Radiofrequenz-Ablation scheint eine prognostische Aussage hinsichtlich einer kompletten/inkompletten Ablation zuzulassen [378]. Bei positivem AFP-Befund zum Zeitpunkt der Diagnosestellung wird somit eine AFP-Kontrolle postinterventionell unmittelbar nach Ablation und alle weiteren 6 Monate über insgesamt 5 Jahre als sinnvoll erachtet.  Die Remissionsbeurteilung nach Ablation/TACE/TARE soll nach mRECIST/EASL oder LI-RADS TR erfolgen [379], [380].

3.4.5 Therapiealgorithmus

Therapiealgorithmus HCC in Zirrhose
Therapiealgorithmus HCC in Zirrhose
Therapiealgorithmus des HCC in Zirrhose im Stadium A1 und A2
Therapiealgorithmus des HCC in Zirrhose im Stadium A1 und A2

3.5 Systemtherapie

3.5.1 Substanzen mit einem Wirksamkeitsnachweis in Phase III Studien für die Systemtherapie des HCC

3.66 · Evidenzbasiertes Statement · modifiziert 2024

Für HCC-Patienten mit erhaltener Leberfunktion (im Child-Pugh-Stadium A), mit Fernmetastasen und/oder einer Tumorlokalisation, die lokoregionär nicht kontrolliert oder reseziert werden kann, liegen Zulassungen aus Phase-III-Studien mit Wirksamkeitsnachweis vor, für

  • die Kombinationstherapie mit den Antikörpern Atezolizumab gegen PD-L1 und Bevacizumab gegen VEGF;
  • die Kombinationstherapie mit den Antikörpern Durvalumab gegen PD-L1 und Tremelimumab gegen CTLA-4;
  • den PD-L1 Antikörper Durvalumab
  • Tyrosinkinase-Inhibitoren mit Sorafenib und Lenvatinib, und für Regorafenib und Cabozantinib nach einer Vortherapie mit Sorafenib;
  • den VEGF-R2 Antikörper Ramucirumab für Patienten nach Sorafenib und einem Alpha-Fetoprotein-Wert von ≥ 400 ng/ml.
Evidenzlevel
1

- 2 (Oxford 2011) Erneute Recherche 2021, neue Literatur Facciorusso 2021, neue Literatur Abou-Alfa 2022


⊕⊕⊝⊝
Konsens
Starker Konsens
Literatur
[381] [382] [383] [384] [385] [386] [387]
ÄnderungshinweisFür HCC-Patienten mit erhaltener Leberfunktion (im Child-Pugh-Stadium A), mit Fernmetastasen und/oder einer Tumorlokalisation, die lokoregionär nicht kontrolliert oder reseziert werden kann, liegen Zulassungen aus Phase-III-Studien mit Wirksamkeitsnachweis vor, für die Kombinationstherapie mit den Antikörpern Atezolizumab gegen PD-L1 und Bevacizumab gegen VEGF; die Kombinationstherapie mit den Antikörpern Durvalumab gegen PD-L1 und Tremelimumab gegen CTLA-4; Tyrosinkinase-Inhibitoren mit Sorafenib und Lenvatinib, und für Regorafenib und Cabozantinib nach einer Vortherapie mit Sorafenib; den VEGF-R2 Antikörper Ramucirumab für Patienten nach Sorafenib und einem Alpha-Fetoprotein-Wert von ≥ 400 ng/ml.
Evidenztabellen (7)HCC Abou-Alfa 2022 DT HIMALAYA; HCC Sorafenib; HCC Abou-Alfa 2018 Cabozantinib; HCC Bruix 2017 Regorafenib RESORCE; HCC Ramucirumab (Zhu 2015 REACH, Zhu 2019 REACH-2); HCC Finn 2020 Atezolizumab+Bevacizumab; HCC Facciorusso 2021 Lenvatinib vs Sorafenib

Für die Behandlung des fortgeschrittenen HCCs stehen mehrere in Phase-III-Studien getestete wirksame Substanzen zur Verfügung. Hierzu zählen als mögliche Erstlinientherapie die Kombinationstherapie Atezolizumab und Bevacizumab (A+B) [381] oder Durvalumab und Tremelimumab (D+T) [388], die Monotherapie mit Durvalumab [388], sowie die Tyrosinkinase-Inhibitoren Sorafenib [382], [389] und Lenvatinib [383]. Nach Versagen einer Therapie mit Sorafenib liegen Daten aus Phase-III-Studien mit einem Wirksamkeitsnachweis vor für Regorafenib [384], Cabozantinib [385] und für Patienten mit einem Alpha-Fetoprotein-Wert von ≥ 400 ng/ml für Ramucirumab [390].

In diesen Therapiestudien waren jeweils fibrolamelläre HCCs und kombinierte Hepato-Cholangiokarzinome nicht untersucht worden.Weitere Informationen zu diesen beiden Entitäten finden sich unter Kapitel Fibrolamelläres Karzinom und Kombiniertes Hepato-Cholangiokarzinom.

3.5.2 Medikamentöse Erstlinien-Therapie des HCC

3.67 · Evidenzbasierte Empfehlung · modifiziert 2024

Eine Erstlinientherapie mit der Kombination Atezolizumab und Bevacizumab (A+B) oder mit Durvalumab und Tremelimumab (D+T) soll angeboten werden bei HCC-Patienten im Child-Pugh-Stadium A und BCLC B oder C, mit Fernmetastasen oder einer Tumorlokalisation, die lokoregionär nicht kontrolliert oder reseziert werden kann.

Patienten mit Kontraindikationen für A+B und D+T soll eine Erstlinientherapie entweder mit Durvalumab als  Monotherapie oder mit einem der beiden Tyrosinkinase-Inhibitoren Lenvatinib oder Sorafenib angeboten werden.

Empfehlungsgrad
A: Starke Empfehlung für oder gegen ein Maßnahme - verwendete Ausdrucksweise = soll/soll nicht
Evidenzlevel
2

Erneute Recherche 2021, neue Literatur Facciorusso 2021, neue Literatur Abou-Alfa 2022


⊕⊕⊝⊝
Konsens
Starker Konsens
Literatur
[381] [389] [383] [387]
ÄnderungshinweisEine Erstlinientherapie mit der Kombination Atezolizumab und Bevacizumab (A+B) oder mit Durvalumab und Tremelimumab (D+T) soll angeboten werden bei HCC-Patienten im Child-Pugh-Stadium A und BCLC B oder C, mit Fernmetastasen oder einer Tumorlokalisation, die lokoregionär nicht kontrolliert oder reseziert werden kann. Patienten mit Kontraindikationen für A+B und D+T soll eine Erstlinientherapie mit einem der beiden Tyrosinkinase-Inhibitoren Lenvatinib oder Sorafenib angeboten werden.
Evidenztabellen (4)HCC Abou-Alfa 2022 DT HIMALAYA; HCC Sorafenib; HCC Finn 2020 Atezolizumab+Bevacizumab; HCC Facciorusso 2021 Lenvatinib vs Sorafenib

Beide Therapiekombinationen sind für die Erstlinientherapie zugelassen, eine generelle Priorisierung von einer gegenüber der anderen Kombination ist aufgrund der Datenlage nicht möglich. Beide Schemata enthalten Checkpoint-Inhibitoren, so dass bei den Zulassungsstudien keine aktive oder bekannte Autoimmunerkankung vorliegen durfte. Die Studien unterschieden sich geringfügig in den Ein- und Ausschlusskriterien. Da beide Therapieschemata gleichberechtigt für die Erstlinie zugelassen sind, werden die Ergebisse der Zulassungsstudien nachfolgend kurz beschrieben. Für die Therapieauswahl sind die Ein- und Ausschlusskriterien und das Nebenwirkunsprofil der einzelnen Substanzen zu berücksichtigen.

Kombinationstherapien

Die Kombinationstherapie A+B wurde im Vergleich zu Sorafenib für Patienten mit lokal fortgeschrittenem oder metastasiertem HCC ohne vorherige Systemtherapie getestet [381]. In die Phase III-Studie eingeschlossen wurden Patienten mit Child-Pugh A und ECOG PS 0 – 1.

Besondere Voraussetzungen für den Studieneinschluss waren u. a. eine Ösophagogastroduodenoskopie innerhalb 6 Monate vor Behandlungsbeginn zum Ausschluss bzw. zur Behandlung blutungsgefährdeter Varizen, sowie keine offenen Wunden, aktive Ulzera oder Knochenfrakturen.

Beide Faktoren des kombinierten primären Endpunktes Gesamtüberleben und PFS zeigten einen Vorteil für A+B: (i) das mediane Gesamtüberleben betrug 19,2 Monate im A+B Arm und 13,4 Monate mit Sorafenib (HR: 0,66 [95% CI: 0,52; 0,85], p < 0,001); (ii) das PFS lag für A+B bei 6,9 Monaten vs. 4,3 Monaten mit Sorafenib (HR: 0,65 [95% CI: 0,53; 0,81], p < 0,001). Die Überlebensraten nach 18 Monaten lagen für A+B bei 52 % und für Sorafenib bei 40 %.

Die Ansprechrate für A+B nach RECIST 1.1 lag bei 30 % (95% CI: 25; 35) und für Sorafenib bei 11 % (95% CI: 7; 17). Eine Komplettremission zeigte sich bei 8 % der Patienten mit A+B, bei Sorafenib wurde eine CR bei einem Patienten (<1 %) nachgewiesen. Die mediane Dauer des Ansprechens lag für A+B bei 18,1 Monaten und bei Sorafenib bei 14,9 Monaten.

Hauptnebenwirkungen mit Grad 3/4 Toxizität bei A+B waren arterielle Hypertonie, Erhöhung von Transaminasen oder Proteinurie. Mehr Patienten beendeten die Therapie von A+B aufgrund von Nebenwirkungen als bei Sorafenib (38 % vs. 31 %) bei allerdings erheblich längerer Behandlungsdauer im Median von 7,4 Monaten mit A+B gegenüber 2,8 Monaten bei Sorafenib. 26% der Patienten mit Sorafenib erhielten nach Progress eine Immuntherapie [391].

Für die Messung der Lebensqualität wurde der Fragebogen EORTC QLQ-C30 eingesetzt. Hierbei zeigten sich signifikante Unterschiede in der medianen Zeit bis zur Verschlechterung („Time to Deterioration“, TTD) zugunsten von A+B in Bezug auf die Lebensqualität von 11,2 vs. 3,6 Monaten (HR: 0,63 [95% CI: 0,46; 0,85]), die physische Funktion von 13,1 vs. 4,9 Monaten (HR: 0,53 [95% CI: 0,39; 0,73] und der Rollenfunktion von 9,1 Monaten vs. 3,6 Monaten (HR: 0,62 [95% CI: 0,46; 0,84] [381]. Eine Analyse von "patient-reported outcomes" (PRO) konnte zusätzlich einen klinisch bedeutsamen Vorteil für Lebensqualität, Rollenfunktion und krankheitspezifische Symptome von A+B gegenüber Sorafenib zeigen [392].

Die Kombinationstherapie D+T wurde in einer Phase III Studie mit den drei Studienarmen D+T, D Monotherapie und Sorafenib untersucht [388]. Eingeschlossen wurden auch in diese Studie Patienten mit Child-Pugh A und ECOG PS 0-1. Als Besonderheit erfolgte bei D+T lediglich die einmalige Gabe von 300 mg Tremelimumab (anti-cytotoxic T lymphocyte-associated antigen 4, anti-CTLA-4 Antikörper) plus 1500 mg Durvalumab alle 4 Wochen (sog. "Single Tremelimumab Regular Interval Durvalumab" bzw. STRIDE Regime). Der primäre Endpunkt der Studie war der Vergleich des Gesamtüberlebens von STRIDE gegenüber Sorafenib. Als sekundärer Endpunkt wurde die Nichtunterlegenheit von Durvalumab (D) vs. Sorafenib untersucht. Ein vierter Arm (T75+D) wurde nach einer vorgeplanten Analyse einer Phase-II-Studie geschlossen und wird daher nicht weiter aufgeführt

Eine besondere Voraussetzung für den Studieneinschluss war u. a. eine adäquate Therapie von Ösophagusvarizen vor Therapiebeginn sofern eine Blutungsanamnese oder ein klinisch als hoch eingeschätzes Risiko für das Vorliegen von Varizen bestand.

Das mediane Gesamtüberleben mit D+T war mit 16,4 Monate signifikant besser als 13,8 Monate mit Sorafenib (HR: 0,78 [95%CI: 0,65; 0,93]; p = 0,0035). Das Gesamtüberleben mit D Monotherapie zeigte mit 16,6 Monaten eine Nichtunterlegenheit zu Sorafenib als sekundären Endpunkt (HR: 0,86,  [95,67 % CI: 0,73; 1,03], noninferiotity margin 1,08), wobei sich statistisch keine Überlegenheit von Durvalumab gegenüber Sorafenib ergab. Die Überlebensraten nach 18 bzw. 36 Monaten lagen für D+T bei 49 % bzw. 31 %, für D bei 47 % bzw. 25 % und für Sorafenib bei 42 % bzw. 20 %.

Die Ansprechrate für D+T nach RECIST 1.1 lag bei 20 %, für D bei 17 % und für Sorafenib bei 5 %. Komplettremissionen zeigten sich bei 3,1 % unter D+T, bei 1,5 % unter D und bei 0 % unter Sorafenib. Die mediane Dauer des Ansprechens lag bei 22,3 Monate für D+T, bei 16,8 Monate für D und bei 18,4 Monate für Sorafenib.

Hauptnebenwirkungen mit Grad3/4 Toxizität für D+T waren Diarrhoe, Erhöhung von Transaminasen oder Pankreasenzymen, Fatigue, Hyponatriämie und Aämie. Ein Therapieabbruch aufgrund von Nebenwirkungen trat bei D+T in 14 %, für D in 8 % und für Sorafenib in 17 % auf. Immunvermittelte Nebenwirkungen, die zu einer Hochdosis Steroidtherapie führten, wurden bei D+T in 20 % und für D in 10 % der Patienten beschrieben [388].

Monotherapien

Die Monotherapie mit Durvalumab ist ebenfalls für die Erstlinientherapie zugelassen. Für die Einordnung dieser Zulassung zeigt die oben beschriebene dreiarmige Studie zusammenfassend einen signifikanten Vorteil von D+T gegenüber Sorafenib und eine Nicht-Unterlegenheit von D als Monotherapie gegenüber Sorafenib. In der Studie fand kein Vergleich zwischen D+T und D statt.

Bei Kontraindikationen oder Unverträglichkeit der Kombinationstherapien ist die Monotherapie mit Durvlumab eine mögliche Alternative.

Für die vergleichbare Wirksamkeit von Checkpoint-Inhibitor Monotherapien mit Sorafenib sprechen zusätzlich auch die Phase III Studien mit Nivolumab ([393]; medianes Gesamtüberleben 16,4 Monate vs. 14,7 Monate mit Sorefenib (HR: 0·85 [95% CI 0·72–1·02]; p=0·075, nicht signifikant besser)) oder Tislelizumab ([394] HR: 0.85 [95% CI 0.71-1.02]; Nicht-Unterlegenheit erreicht bei HR < 1,08). Durvalumab ist jedoch der einzige bisher zugelassene Checkpoint-Inhibitor für eine Monotherapie beim HCC.

Sorafenib führte in der 2008 berichteten Zulassungsstudie bei Patienten mit fortgeschrittenem HCC, ECOG 0 – 2, Albumin ≥2,8 g/dl, Gesamtbilirubin ≤3 mg/dl zu einem Gesamtüberleben von 10,7 Monaten gegenüber 7,9 Monaten mit Placebo [389]. Die Überlebensrate nach 1 Jahr betrug 44 % mit Sorafenib gegenüber 33 % mit Placebo, der Zeitpunkt bis zur radiologischen Progression verlängerte sich unter Sorafenib von 2,8 auf 5,5 Monate. In einer vergleichbaren Phase-III-Studie aus dem asiatisch-pazifischen Raum konnte ebenfalls ein signifikant besseres Gesamtüberleben mit 6,5 Monaten gegenüber 4,2 Monaten mit Placebo erreicht werden [382]. Für Sorafenib liegen weitere Daten als Kontrollarm aus 5 Phase-III-Studien vor. In allen diesen zusätzlichen Studien fand allerdings eine Beschränkung auf Patienten mit ECOG-Stadium 0 – 1 statt. Das mediane Gesamtüberleben bei 4 Studien, die keinen Vorteil gegenüber Sorafenib zeigen konnten und weitgehend vergleichbare Einschlusskriterien aufwiesen, lag für Sorafenib konsistent zwischen 9,1 und 10,2 Monaten [395], [396], [397], [398]. Das verbesserte Gesamtüberleben mit Sorafenib in den zwischen 2020 und 2022 publizierten Phase III Studien zwischen 13,4 und 15,5 Monaten dürfte vor allem auf die inzwischen zusätzlich zugelassenen weiteren Therapieoptionen beim HCC zurückzuführen sein [381][393][381][388]

Die „Nicht-Unterlegenheit“ von Lenvatinib im Vergleich zu Sorafenib wurde für ECOG 0-1, Tumorbefall der Leber ≤ 50 %, Albumin ≥ 2,8 g/dl, Gesamtbilirubin ≤ 3 mg/dl und fehlender Invasion des DHC oder des Pfortaderhauptstammes 2018 berichtet [383]. Hierbei zeigte sich ein Gesamtüberleben für Lenvatinib von 13,6 Monaten und von Sorafenib in diesem Patientenkollektiv von 12,3 Monaten. Überraschend war dabei für Lenvatinib ein statistisch längeres progressionsfreies Überleben (PFS) von 7,4 Monaten gegenüber 3,7 Monaten bei Sorafenib und ein objektives Ansprechen bei 40,6 % nach mRECIST und 18,8 % nach RECIST 1.1 bei Lenvatinib gegenüber 12,4 % nach mRECIST und 6,5 % nach RECIST 1.1 bei Sorafenib. Die vor kurzem publizierte LEAP-002 Studie, berichtet die bisher längste Überlebenszeit nach Beginn einer Lenvatinib-Therapie in der Erstlinie mit 19,0 Monaten [399].  Verglichen wurde die Therapie mit der Kombination Lenvatinib und Pembrolizumab, welche keinen statistisch signifikanten Unterschied im Gesamtüberleben mit 21,2 Monaten erreichen konnte.

3.5.3 Medikamentöse Therapie bei Leberzirrhose CHILD-Pugh B/C

3.68 · Evidenzbasierte Empfehlung · modifiziert 2024

Einzelnen HCC-Patienten im Child-Pugh-Stadium B (bis 8 Punkte), mit Fernmetastasen oder einer Tumorlokalisation, die lokoregionär nicht kontrolliert oder reseziert werden kann und mit einem ECOG-Status von 0 – 1, kann eine Systemtherapie mit Sorafenib oder Lenvatinib angeboten werden.

Empfehlungsgrad
0: offene Empfehlung (Option) bzgl. einer Maßnahme - verwendete Ausdrucksweise = kann
Evidenzlevel
2

LoE 3 für Lenvatinib

Konsens
Konsens
Literatur
[400] [401] [402] [403] [404] [405]
ÄnderungshinweisEinzelne HCC-Patienten im Child-Pugh-Stadium B (bis 8 Punkte), mit Fernmetastasen oder einer Tumorlokalisation, die lokoregionär nicht kontrolliert oder reseziert werden kann und mit einem ECOG-Status von 0 – 1, kann eine Systemtherapie mit Sorafenib angeboten werden.
Evidenztabellen (2)Sorafenib Child B; HCC 2024 A+B vs. Lenvatinib Child B
3.69 · Evidenzbasierte Empfehlung · geprüft 2024

Für einzelne HCC-Patienten im Child-Pugh-Stadium B (bis 8 Punkte), mit Fernmetastasen oder einer Tumorlokalisation, die lokoregionär nicht kontrolliert oder reseziert werden kann und einem ECOG-Status von 0 - 1, kann eine Immuntherapie mit einem anti-PD-1-Antikörper angeboten werden.

Empfehlungsgrad
0: offene Empfehlung (Option) bzgl. einer Maßnahme - verwendete Ausdrucksweise = kann
Evidenzlevel
2

Yau 2022


3

Kudo 2021

Konsens
Starker Konsens
Literatur
[401] [402] [400] [404] [403] [406] [393]
Evidenztabellen (2)HCC Kudo 2021 Nivo Child B; HCC Yau 2022 Nivo
3.70 · Evidenzbasierte Empfehlung · modifiziert 2024

Bei HCC-Patienten im Stadium Child-Pugh C sollte keine Systemtherapie durchgeführt werden.

Empfehlungsgrad
B: Empfehlung für oder gegen eine Maßnahme - verwendete Ausdrucksweise = sollte/sollte nicht
Evidenzlevel
5

Recherche erfolgt, keine Studien vorliegend.

Konsens
Starker Konsens
ÄnderungshinweisÜberführung von konsensbasierte in evidenzbasierte Empfehlung

In der GIDEON (Global Investigation of therapeutic decisions in hepatocellular carcinoma and of its treatment with sorafenib)-Studie wurden Daten von 3371 Patienten aus 39 Ländern ausgewertet, 666 von den Patienten mit Child-Pugh  [400]. Die Häufigkeit und Art der Nebenwirkungen war zwischen Patienten mit Child-Pugh A und B im Wesentlichen identisch. In der Intent-to-Treat-Population (2717 Patienten) erreichten Patienten mit Child-Pugh A ein medianes Gesamtüberleben von 13,6 Monate, mit Child-Pugh B7 6,2 Monate, B8 4,8 Monate und B9 3,7 Monaten und mit Child-Pugh C 2,6 Monate.

Die INSIGHT-Studie untersuchte die Gabe von Sorafenib bei 782 Patienten aus Deutschland und Österreich, davon 182 Patienten mit Child-Pugh B [401]. Das mediane Gesamtüberleben aller Patienten betrug 15,1 Monate, für Patienten mit BCLC A 29,2 Monate, B 19,6 Monate, C 13,6 Monate und D 3,1 Monate. In Abhängigkeit des Child-Pugh-Status betrug das mediane Gesamtüberleben bei A 17,6 Monate, bei B7 8,1 Monate, B8 9,5 Monate, B9 2,4 Monate.

In 3 prospektiven Studien aus Brasilien mit 130 Patienten [402], Italien mit 300 Patienten  [403] und Japan mit 89 Patienten [404] wurde die Anwendung von Sorafenib bei Patienten mit Child-Pugh A gegenüber B verglichen. Alle Studien zeigten ein signifikant besseres Gesamtüberleben für Patienten mit Child-Pugh A. In allen 3 Studien zeigten sich Unterschiede innerhalb der Gruppe Child-Pugh B mit einem besseren Überleben für Patienten mit B7 (4,6 - 8,7 Monate) im Vergleich zu Patienten mit ≥ B8 (2,9 – 6 Monate).

Für den Einsatz weiterer Tyrosinkinase-Inhibitoren bei der Gruppe von Patienten mit Child-Pugh B liegen bisher keine ausreichenden Daten vor, die für eine Empfehlung ausreichen. Eine Beobachtung für Cabozantinib bei Child-Pugh B konnte bei einer Subgruppenanalyse aus der Phase III Studie Cabozantinib vs. Placebo (2:1 Randomisierung) in der Zweit- bzw. Drittlinie nach Sorafenib [385] berichtet werden. Einschlusskriterium in diese Studie war Child-Pugh A, allerdings konnten 73 Patienten identifiziert werden (51 im Cabozantinib- und 22 im Plazebo-Arm), die bereits 8 Wochen nach Therapiebeginn einen Child-Pugh B Status aufwiesen [407]. Das mediane Gesamtüberleben mit Cabozantinib war mit 8,5 Monaten signifikant besser als mit 3,8 Monaten im Plazebo-Arm. Ähnliche Daten sind für Lenvatinib in der Erstlinie aus der REFLECT Studie berichtet worden [408]. Diese Daten lassen vermuten, dass die Therapie bei diesen Patienten trotz der Verschlechterung der Leberfunktion weitergeführt werden könnte. Zusätzlich konnte in einer retrospektiven Analyse mit 152 CHILD-Pugh B Patienten ein mOS von 13,8 Monaten unter Lenvatinib beschrieben werden, welches über 5 Monate höher lag als bei 65 Patienten, die mit Atezolizumab und Bevacizumab behandelt worden sind [405]. Dies ist die größte bisher berichtete Gruppe von CHLD-Pugh B Patienten, die mit Lenvatinib behandelt worden sind. Berücksichtigt werden muss allerdings, dass methodisch aufgrund der berichteten Daten kein Vergleich der beiden Therapien in den zwei unterschiedlichen Kollektiven möglich ist.

Aus der CheckMate 040-Studie mit Nivolumab wurden 49 Patienten mit Child-Pugh B Status berichtet [406]. Eine PR erreichten 6 Patienten (12 %), 21 Patienten SD (43 %) und 15 Patienten eine PD (31 %) als „Best Response“. Die mediane Dauer des Ansprechens betrug 9,9 Monate. Das mediane Überleben war vergleichbar hoch für Child-Pugh B7 mit 7,6 Monaten und B8 mit 7,4 Monaten. Das Nebenwirkungsprofil war vergleichbar zwischen Child-Pugh A-Patienten in der CheckMate 040-Studie und führte zu keiner höheren Abbruchrate von Nivolumab bei Patienten mit Child-Pugh B 7/8. Beide Patientenkohorten waren ECOG 0 oder 1. Eine Metaanalyse unter Einschluss von 669 Patienten mit CHILD-Pugh B zeigte für eine Therapie mit anti-PD1/anti-PD-L1 Antikörpern eine Ansprechrate von 14% und ein Gesamtüberleben von 5,5 Monaten, welches beides niedriger lag als bei der Vergleichsgruppe mit 2114 CHILD-Pugh A Patienten [Xie, E et al. 2023]. Interessanterweise war das Risiko für unerwünschte Nebenwirkungen in beiden Gruppen vergleichbar und einige Patienten aus der Gruppe mit CHILD-Pugh B erreichten ein erheblich längeres Überleben und in Einzelfällen auch eine Verbesserung der Leberfunktion.


Für die Kombination Atezolizumab und Bevacizumab (A+B) liegen bisher nur retrospektive Daten für Patienten mit Child-Pugh B vor. Ein Vergleich von A+B in der Erstlinie zwischen 154 Patienten mit Child-Pugh A und 48 Patienten mit Child-Pugh B (jeweils 21 Patienten mit B7 und B8 Punkten) [D'Alessio, A et al. 2022] zeigte in Bezug auf die Toxizität keinen relevanten Uterschied. Beim Gesamtüberleben war die Gruppe Child-Pugh A mit 16,8 Monaten signifikant besser als Patienten mit Child-Pugh B mit 6,7 Monaten. Auch das PFS war bei diesem Vergleich mit 7,6 vs. 3,4 Monaten für die Child-Pugh B Gruppe geringer, obwohl eine vergleichbare Ansprechrate mit 26 % bei Child-Pugh A vs. 21 % bei Child-Pugh B beschrieben wurde. In einer retrospektiven Analyse aus Deutschland zeigte sich bzgl. der Ansprech- und Krankheitskontrollrate jeweils kein Unterschied zwischen Patienten mit CHILD-Pugh B/C bzw. A (ORR 36% vs. 36% und DCR 78% vs. 77%) bei geringerem PFS und OS [411].

Ähnliche Ergebnisse wurden aus einer deutschen "Real World" Studie berichtet. Um den Einfluss der Leberfunktion auf das OS zu bestimmen, wurden Kaplan-Meier-Kurven nach CPS- oder ALBI-Grad bei Studienbeginn stratifiziert. Beide Bewertungssysteme ergaben signifikante Unterschiede für das mOS: CPS-A-Patienten erreichten ein mOS von 12,0 Monaten (95% CI: 8,2-15,8) gegenüber 6,8 Monaten (95% CI: 3,1-10,5; p = 0,04) in der CPS-B-Gruppe. Das mediane OS betrug nur 1,0 Monate (95% CI: 0,0-3,9; p < 0,001) bei den wenigen CPS-C-Patienten, die in die Studie aufgenommen wurden (n = 6). Auch anhand des ALBI-Grades, der eine genauere Unterscheidung insbesondere innerhalb der CPS A-Gruppe ermöglicht, zeigten sich deutliche Unterschiede im Überleben und ALBI-Grad 1-Patienten erreichten ein mOS von 15,0 Monaten (95% CI: NE), während das mOS bei ALBI-Grad 2-Patienten mit 8,6 Monaten (95% CI: 5,4 - 11,7; p = 0,002) signifikant niedriger war, gefolgt von 3,2 Monaten (95% CI: 0,3- 6,1; p < 0,001) in der ALBI-Grad 3-Gruppe [412].

Aus diesen retrospektiven Analysen kann zum jetzigen Zeitpunkt keine positive Empfehlung abgeleitet werden.

3.5.4 Kombination von Systemtherapie mit lokoregionärer Therapie

3.71 · Evidenzbasiertes Statement · modifiziert 2024
Bei HCC-Patienten im Stadium Child-Pugh A und BCLC B, die eine lokoregionäre Therapie erhalten, kann keine generelle Empfehlung für eine zusätzliche Systemtherapie aufgrund der aktuellen Datenlage erfolgen.
Evidenzlevel
2
3

neue Recherche Update 2024

Konsens
Konsens
Literatur
[413] [339] [414] [415] [416] [417] [418] [419] [420] [421]
ÄnderungshinweisBei HCC-Patienten im Stadium Child-Pugh A und BCLC B, die eine lokoregionäre Therapie erhalten, sollte außerhalb von Studien keine zusätzliche Kombination mit einer Systemtherapie erfolgen.
Evidenztabellen (2)HCC Sorafenib +/- TACE; HCC TACE+Systemtherapie BCLC B

Als bisher einizige positive Phase III Studie für eine Kombination aus Systemtherapie und TACE vs. alleiniger TACE wurden erste Daten der Studie EMERALD-1 auf dem ASCO-GI im Januar 2024 veröffentlicht. In der dreiarmigen Studie wurden insgesamt 616 Patienten mit nicht kurativ behandelbarem HCC ohne extrahepatische Manifestationen, CHILD-Pugh A bis B7 und Ausschluss einer Vp3 oder Vp4 Pfortaderinvasion eingeschlossen. In Arm A erfolgte zusätzlich zur TACE eine Therapie mit Durvalumab (D), in Arm B von Durvalumab und nach Abschluss der TACE-Interventionen zusätzlich Bevacizumab (B) und in Arm C Plazebo. In den Studienarmen wurden jeweils zwischen 55 und 60% Patienten im BCLC B Stadium eingeschlossen. Der primäre Endpunkt PFS war in Arm B (TACE und D+B) mit 15,0 Monaten signifikant besser als in Arm C (alleinige TACE) mit 8,2 Monaten (HR (95% CI) 0,77 (0,61-0,98); p = 0,032). Der Vergleich von Arm A (TACE und D) mit Arm C ergab keinen Unterschied mit einer HR von 0,94 (95% CI 0,75-1,19; p = 0,638). Eine Vollpublikation der Daten bzw. Analysen bzgl. dem sekundären Endpunkt des Gesamtüberlebens liegen noch nicht vor. Unklar ist bisher noch ob die Daten für eine frühzeitige zusätzliche Systemtherapie für alle Patienten mit einer TACE sprechen oder ob es Subgruppen von Patienten gibt, welche in besonderem Maße von der Therapie profitieren. Weitere Auswertungen zu dieser Studie, insbesondere auch Überlebensdaten der einzelnen Arme dürften einige der unklaren Fragen im zeitlichen Verlauf beantworten. Aufgrund der zur Konsensuskonferenz vorliegende Datenlage kann keine grundsätzliche Empfehlung einer Kombination von TACE plus Systemtherapie bisher erfolgen. Die Leitliniengruppe sieht weiterhin einen hohen Bedarf an Studiendaten in dieser Indikation und empfiehlt die Teilnahme an laufenden Studien.

In der SPACE-Studie wurden 307 Patienten, bei denen eine TACE mit Doxorubicin-eluting Beads (DEB-TACE) durchgeführt worden ist, zusätzlich 1:1 randomisiert für Sorafenib oder Placebo [414]. Einschlusskriterien waren BCLC B, Child-Pugh A, ECOG 0 und das Fehlen von Aszites. Der primäre Endpunkt der Studie mit Zeit bis zur Progression (TTP) war nahezu identisch zwischen den beiden Gruppen TACE plus Placebo vs. TACE plus Sorafenib (166 Tage vs. 169 Tage). Als sekundärer Endpunkt konnte auch im Gesamtüberleben kein statistischer Unterschied festgestellt werden.

Vergleichbare Ergebnisse wurden für die TACE2-Studie berichtet, in der bei 313 Patienten mit einer DEB-TACE ebenfalls eine 1:1 Randomisierung für Sorafenib oder Placebo erfolgte [415]. Einschlusskriterien waren u. a. ECOG 0 – 1, Child-Pugh A und keine Möglichkeit der Resektion oder Transplantation. Auch in dieser Studie war der primäre Endpunkt TTP zwischen den beiden Armen mit 238 Tage für TACE plus Sorafenib und 235 Tagen für TACE plus Placebo nahezu identisch. Auch der sekundäre Endpunkt medianes OS zeigte keinen Unterschied mit 631 Tagen bei Sorafenib und 598 Tagen in der Placebogruppe.

In retrospektiven Studien bei Patienten (vorweigend aus dem asiatischen Raum und HBV) mit fortgeschrittenem Stadium BCLC B und bei Patienten mit Stadium BCLC C (mit Pfortaderinvasion und/oder extrahepatischer Metastasierung) bei denen eine Indikation zur TACE gestellt wird, konnte das progressionsfreies Überleben und Gesamtüberleben verlängert werden, wenn die TACE mit einer Systemtherapie mit Lenvatinib und PD-1-Inhibitor kombiniert wird [422][423][424][425][426].

In der SORAMIC-Studie wurden Patienten mit BCLC B, die keine TACE erhalten konnten, mit TARE oder TARE plus Sorafenib behandelt [427]. Der primäre Endpunkt des Gesamtüberlebens zeigte keinen Unterschied mit 12,1 Monaten für Patienten mit TARE und Sorafenib gegenüber 11,4 Monaten mit alleiniger Sorafenib-Therapie. Subgruppenanalysen der Patienten, die nach Protokoll behandelt worden sind, deuten auf mögliche Vorteile einer Kombinationsbehandlung bei Patienten ohne Leberzirrhose, nichtalkoholischer Leberzirrhose oder Patienten mit einem Alter von höchstens 65 Jahren hin.

In der japanischen TACTICS-Studie wurde TACE gegenüber TACE plus Sorafenib verglichen [428]. Dabei wurde Tumorprogression als fehlende Möglichkeit einer weiteren TACE -Intervention definiert. Kriterien hierfür waren intrahepatische Tumorprogression > 25 % gegenüber baseline, vorübergehende CHILD-Pugh C Situation nach vorangegangener TACE, makrovaskuläre Invasion oder extrahepatische Progression. Als Besonderheit wurden neu auftretende intrahepatische Läsionen nicht als Tumorprogression gewertet und die Beurteilung des Ansprechens erfolgte mit den "Response Evaluation Criteria in Cancer of the Liver (RECICL)" [429]. In dieser Studie wurde der primäre Endpunkt mit einem verlängerten PFS in der Gruppe TACE plus Sorafenib mit 25,2 Monaten erreicht gegenüber 13,5 Monaten in der TACE Gruppe. Bei den klinischen Daten der eingeschlossenen ausschließlich asiatischen Studienpatienten fiel dabei auf, dass im TACE-Arm mehr Patienten mit Hepatitis C (69,7 vs. 47,5 %) und weniger Patienten mit der günstigsten Einstufung des CHILD-Pugh Wertes von 5 (71,1 vs. 80 %) eingeschlossen worden sind. Die Analyse des Gesamtüberlebens zeigte im Gegensatz zum PFS keinen signifikanten Unterschied der beiden Gruppen mit 36,2 Monaten im TACE plus Sorafenib Arm gegenüber 30,8 Monaten mit TACE alleine (HR, 0,861 [95% CI: 0.607; 1,223]; p = 0,40) [430]

3.5.5 Medikamentöse Therapie nach Versagen, Unverträglichkeit oder bei Kontraindikationen der Erstlinientherapie des HCC

3.72 · Konsensbasierte Empfehlung · modifiziert 2024

Eine Systemtherapie mit einem zugelassenen Tyrosinkinaseinhibitor soll nach Progress oder bei Unverträglichkeit von Atezolizumab und Bevacizumab bzw. Durvalumab +/- Tremelimumab angeboten werden bei HCC-Patienten im Child-Pugh-Stadium A und BCLC B oder C, mit Fernmetastasen oder einer Tumorlokalisation, die lokoregionär nicht kontrolliert oder reseziert werden kann.

Konsens
Starker Konsens
ÄnderungshinweisEine Systemtherapie mit einem zugelassenen Tyrosinkinaseinhibitor soll nach Progress oder bei Unverträglichkeit von Atezolizumab und Bevacizumab bzw. Durvalumab und Tremelimumab angeboten werden bei HCC-Patienten im Child-Pugh-Stadium A und BCLC B oder C, mit Fernmetastasen oder einer Tumorlokalisation, die lokoregionär nicht kontrolliert oder reseziert werden kann.

Bisher liegen keine Daten über die Therapiesequenz nach Versagen der Kombination Atezolizumab und Bevacizumab oder Durvalumab und Tremelimumab oder Durvalumab mono vor. Bei fehlenden Daten zu dieser Frage wird davon ausgegangen, dass alle bisher etablierten Therapien eingesetzt werden können. Weitere Informationen zur Abfolge von Systemtherapien werden in den kommenden Jahren erwartet. Sollten hierfür Studien vorliegen, werden diese im Rahmen der Living Guideline oder als Amendment der Leitlinie angefügt werden.

3.73 · Evidenzbasierte Empfehlung · geprüft 2024

Bei HCC-Patienten mit Tumorprogress unter einer Therapie mit Sorafenib, Child-Pugh-Stadium A und ECOG 0 - 1, soll eine weitere Systemtherapie angeboten werden. Hierfür stehen die beiden Tyrosinkinase-Inhibitoren Regorafenib und Cabozantinib oder bei einem Alpha-Fetoprotein-Wert von ≥ 400 ng/ml der VEGFR2-Antikörper Ramucirumab zur Verfügung.

Empfehlungsgrad
A: Starke Empfehlung für oder gegen ein Maßnahme - verwendete Ausdrucksweise = soll/soll nicht
Evidenzlevel
2
Konsens
Starker Konsens
Literatur
[385] [386] [431]
Evidenztabellen (3)HCC Abou-Alfa 2018 Cabozantinib; HCC Bruix 2017 Regorafenib RESORCE; HCC Ramucirumab (Zhu 2015 REACH, Zhu 2019 REACH-2)
3.74 · Konsensbasierte Empfehlung · geprüft 2024

Bei HCC-Patienten im Child-Pugh-Stadium A und ECOG 0 - 1 mit Tumorprogress unter einer Therapie mit Lenvatinib soll eine weitere tumorspezifische Therapie angeboten werden.

Konsens
Konsens

Einschlusskriterien für eine Behandlung mit Regorafenib in der Phase-III-Studie RESORCE waren u. a. dokumentierter Progress unter einer Vortherapie mit Sorafenib, ECOG 0 - 1, kein Behandlungsabbruch von Sorafenib aufgrund von Toxizität und Toleranz von Sorafenib in einer Dosierung von ≥ 400 mg täglich über mindestens 20 von 28 Tagen vor der Tumorprogression [384]. In diesem selektionierten Kollektiv erreichte Regorafenib ein medianes Gesamtüberleben von 10,6 Monaten gegenüber 7,8 Monaten mit Placebo. Der mediane Zeitraum bis zur Progression lag bei 3,2 Monaten mit Regorafenib gegenüber 1,5 Monaten mit Placebo. In Subgruppenanalysen zeigte sich u. a. ein Unterschied im Gesamtüberleben zugunsten von Regorafenib für Patienten mit extrahepatischem Tumorbefall im Vergleich zu einer Begrenzung des Tumors auf die Leber, für Patienten ohne Hepatitis C oder für Patienten ohne Alkoholanamnese als Ursache der Lebererkrankung. Ein objektives Ansprechen nach mRECIST zeigte sich bei 11 % und nach RECIST 1.1 bei 7 % im Regorafenib-Arm gegenüber 4 % (mRECIST) und 3 % (RECIST 1.1) unter Placebo.

Einschlusskriterien für eine Behandlung mit Cabozantinib in der Phase-III-Studie „CELESTIAL“ waren u. a. Vorbehandlung mit Sorafenib, Progression unter einer medikamentösen Vortherapie, Gabe von Cabozantinib als Zweit- oder Drittlinientherapie, ECOG 0 - 1, Bilirubin ≤ 2 mg/dl und Serumalbumin ≥ 2,8 g/dl [385]. Die Behandlung mit Cabozantinib führte zu einem medianen Gesamtüberleben von 10,2 Monaten gegenüber 8,0 Monaten mit Placebo. Das PFS war mit 5,2 Monaten deutlich verlängert im Vergleich zu Placebo mit 1,9 Monaten und die objektive Ansprechrate nach RECIST 1.1 betrug 4 % im Cabozantinib-Arm gegenüber 0,4 % unter Placebo. Die Überlebensrate nach 12 bzw. 24 Monaten war für Cabozantinib 46 % bzw. 18 % und für Placebo 34 % bzw. 13 %. In Subgruppenanalysen zeigte sich ein Trend zu einem besseren Gesamtüberleben unter Cabozantinib für Patienten mit AFP-Wert ≥ 400 ng/ml, extrahepatischem Tumorbefall, Vorliegen einer HBV Infektion oder fehlender Infektion mit HBV oder HCV, sowie für lediglich eine im Vergleich zu zwei medikamentösen Vortherapien. Die mediane Dosis von Cabozantinib lag in der CELESTIAL-Studie bei 35,8 mg im Vergleich zu 58,9 mg bei Placebo (die Zieldosis der Studie lag bei 60 mg), so dass im klinischen Alltag eine Dosisreduktion im Vergleich zu den in der Zulassung empfohlenen 60 mg pro Tag die Regel sein dürfte.

Einschlusskriterien für eine Behandlung mit Ramucirumab in der REACH 2 Studie waren u. a. Vorbehandlung mit Sorafenib, ECOG 0 – 1 und ein AFP-Wert von ≥ 400 ng/ml [390]. Patienten wurden bei klinisch bedeutsamem Aszites, mit regelmäßigen Punktionen in der Vorgeschichte, nicht eingeschlossen. Das mediane Gesamtüberleben im Ramucirumab-Arm betrug 8,5 Monate gegenüber 7,3 Monate mit Placebo. Der Zeitraum bis zur radiologischen Progression betrug 3,0 Monate mit Ramucirumab gegenüber 1,6 Monate mit Placebo. In Subgruppenanalysen zeigte sich ein Trend zur besseren Wirkung mit Ramucirumab in der Patientengruppe ≥ 65 Jahre, für Patienten mit extrahepatischen Metastasen und fehlender makrovaskulärer Infiltration. In einer gepoolten Analyse der REACH 2-Studie mit Patienten aus der REACH I-Studie, die ein AFP-Wert ≥ 400 ng/ml vor Therapiebeginn aufwiesen, zeigte sich ein etwas deutlicherer Unterschied im medianen Gesamtüberleben zugunsten von Ramucirumab mit 8,1 Monaten gegenüber 5 Monaten [390].

Es liegen keine ausreichenden Daten für eine bestimmte Therapieempfehlung nach Progress unter Lenvatinib vor, prinzipiell kommen alle Substanzen in Frage, welche in einer Phase-III-Studie als wirksam getestet wurden. Nach dem aktuellen Status der Zulassungen in Deutschland ist eine Behandlung mit Sorafenib nach Lenvatinib oder Atezolizumab und Bevacizumab bzw. Durvalumab und Tremelimumab als „in-label“ Therapie anzusehen, die weiteren zugelassenen Substanzen Cabozantinib, Ramucirumab und Regorafenib sind laut Zulassungstext nach einer Behandlung mit Sorafenib indiziert.

 

Anwendungsgebiete laut aktueller Zulassung:

  • Atezolizumab ist indiziert in Kombination mit Bevacizumab bei erwachsenen Patienten für die Behandlung des fortgeschrittenene oder nicht resezierbaren Hepatozellulären Karzinoms, die keine vorherige systemische Behandlung erhalten haben.
  • Durvalumab ist indiziert in Kombination mit einer Einmalgabe von Tremelimumab bei bei Erwachsenen zur Erstlinienbehandlung des fortgeschrittenen oder nicht resezierbaren Hepatozellulären Karzinoms (HCC).
  • Durvalumab als Monotherapie ist zugelassen bei Erwachsenen zur Erstlinientherapie des fortgeschrittenen oder nicht resezierbaren Hepatozellulären Karzinoms (HCC).
  • Lenvatinib ist indiziert als Monotherapie für die Behandlung von erwachsenen Patienten mit fortgeschrittenem oder inoperablem Hepatozellulären Karzinom, die zuvor noch keine systemische Therapie erhalten haben.
  • Sorafenib ist angezeigt zur Behandlung des Leberzellkarzinoms.
  • Cabozantinib ist indiziert als Monotherapie für die Behandlung des Leberzellkarzinoms bei Erwachsenen, die zuvor mit Sorafenib behandelt wurden.
  • Regorafenib ist angezeigt als Monotherapie zur Behandlung von erwachsenen Patienten mit Hepatozellulärem Karzinom, die zuvor mit Sorafenib behandelt wurden.
  • Ramucirumab ist als Monotherapie indiziert zur Behandlung von erwachsenen Patienten mit fortgeschrittenem oder inoperablem Hepatozellulären Karzinom, die ein Serum-Alpha-Fetoprotein (AFP) von ≥ 400 ng/ml aufweisen und die zuvor mit Sorafenib behandelt wurden.
Sequenztherapie beim HCC innerhalb der zugelassenen Indikationen
Sequenztherapie beim HCC innerhalb der zugelassenen Indikationen
3.75 · Konsensbasierte Empfehlung · geprüft 2024

Die laufende Systemtherapie sollte nicht über einen radiologischen Progress hinaus fortgesetzt werden.

Die Toxizität der Therapie sollte engmaschig überwacht und berücksichtigt werden.

Konsens
Konsens

Nachdem für das HCC mehrere unterschiedliche medikamentöse Tumortherapien zur Verfügung stehen, sollte die Therapie mit einer bestimmten Substanz außerhalb von klinischen Studien nicht über einen radiologischen Progress hinaus fortgesetzt werden. Sofern der ECOG-Status und die Leberfunktion noch eine weitere verfügbare Therapie zulassen, sollte rechtzeitig bei Progress eine Therapieänderung durchgeführt werden.

3.76 · Evidenzbasierte Empfehlung · geprüft 2024

Einzelnen Immuntherapienaiven HCC-Patienten mit erhaltener Leberfunktion (im Stadium Child-Pugh A), mit Fernmetastasen oder einer Tumorlokalisation, die lokoregionär nicht kontrolliert oder reseziert werden kann und für die keine zugelassene Therapie mehr zur Verfügung steht, kann eine Immuntherapie mit einem anti-PD-1-Antikörper angeboten werden.

Empfehlungsgrad
0: offene Empfehlung (Option) bzgl. einer Maßnahme - verwendete Ausdrucksweise = kann
Evidenzlevel
2

Yau 2022, Parikh 2021, Rao 2020, Finn 2020


3

Kudo 2022, He 2021

Konsens
Konsens
Literatur
[432] [433] [434] [435] [436] [437]
Evidenztabellen (6)HCC He 2021 PDL1; HCC Parikh 2021 NivoIpi; HCC Rao 2020 PDL1; HCC Finn 2020 Pembolizumab; HCC Kudo 2022 Keynote-224 Pembrolizumab; HCC Yau 2022 Nivo

Die beiden PD1-Antikörper Nivolumab und Pembrolizumab waren aufgrund einarmiger Studien in den USA für die Behandlung des HCC nach Vorbehandlung mit Sorafenib zugelassen worden. Im April 2021 hat das "Oncologic Drug Advisory Committee" der amerikanischen Behörde FDA diese Zulassung nach Prüfung inzwischen vorliegender weiterer Studiendaten für Nivolumab widerrufen, für Pembrolizumab jedoch bestätigt. Die Firma BMS hat daher die Indikation für die Monotherapie mit Nivolumab beim HCC im Juli 2021 freiwillig zurückgezogen. Unbeinflusst davon ist die Zulassung in den USA für die Kombinationstherapie von Nivolumab mit Ipilimumab nach einer Vortherapie mit Sorafenib. In Europa liegt bisher keine Zulassung für diese Checkpoint-Inhibitoren vor. Grundlage für die Zulassung durch die FDA für Nivolumab war die CheckMate 040-Studie mit 262 Patienten [438], in der 20 % der Patienten entweder eine komplette (CR) oder partielle (PR) Remission, 45 % eine stabile Erkrankung (SD) und 32 % eine Tumorprogression (PD) als sog. „Best Response“ erreicht haben. Die mediane Dauer des Tumoransprechens lag bei 17 Monaten, was darauf hindeutet, dass einige Patienten erheblich von der Therapie profitieren. Klinische Charakteristika oder Biomarker, die ein Therapieansprechen vorhersagen könnten, sind bisher nicht bekannt. Vergleichbare Daten konnten für Pembrolizumab in der Keynote 224-Studie gezeigt werden [439] für die aktuell ein Update publiziert wurde: CR oder PR bei 18 %, SD bei 43 % und PD bei 34 % der Patienten als "best response" [436]. Für Patienten mit einem Ansprechen wird eine mediane Zeit von 21 Monaten bis zum Progress berichtet, das mediane Gesamtüberleben in dieser Studie lag bei 13,2 Monaten. In der Zwischenzeit sind randomisierte Phase-III-Daten in der Erstlinie für Nivolumab vs. Sorafenib [393] und in der Zweitlinie Pembrolizumab vs. Placebo (Keynote 240) [440] vorgestellt worden, ohne dass in diesen Studien ein signifikanter Vorteil für die Immuntherapie gezeigt werden konnte. Im Gegensatz dazu konnte in der KEYNOTE-394 Studie eine signifikante Verbesserung des Überlebens für Pembrolizumab im Vergleich zu Plazebo erreicht werden, allerdings wurde diese Studie ausschließlich im asiatischen Raum rekrutiert [441].

Faktoren, die zu einem negativen Studienergebnis beigetragen haben dürften, sind u.a. die Tatsache, dass nur eine Subgruppe von Patienten von der Therapie deutlich profitieren, die Postprogressions-Therapien im Kontrollarm (u.a. Nivolumab oder Pembrolizumab), sowie fehlende Biomarker für die Therapiestratifizierung. Grundlage für die FDA-Zulassung von Nivolumab mit Ipilimumab war die Phase I/II CheckMate 040 Studie, bei der unterschiedliche Dosierungen von Ipilimumab und Nivoluzmab in drei Armen getestet worden sind. Zugelassen wurde die viermalige Gabe von Ipilimumab 3 mg/kg KG in Kombination mit Nivolumab 1 mg/kg KG alle 3 Wochen, gefolgt von einer Monotherapie mit Nivolumab. Mit dieser Therapie wurde in einer Gruppe von 50 Patienten eine Ansprechrate von 32 % erzielt mit einer Komplettremission bei 4 Patienten und partiellen Remission bei 12 Patienten, das mediane Gesamtüberleben lag bei 22,8 Monaten [437].

Die für das HCC hohe Rate an objektivem Therapieansprechen und die in den Studien berichtete mediane Dauer des Therapieansprechens zwischen 14 und 23 Monaten sprechen dafür, dass einzelne Immuntherapie-naive Patienten mit HCC deutlich von einer Therapie mit PD1-/ PD-L1-Hemmung profitieren können.

3.5.6 Fibrolamelläres Karzinom

3.77 · Evidenzbasiertes Statement · geprüft 2024

Für das fibrolamelläre HCC (flHCC) gibt es bisher keine Phase-II oder -III-Studien aus denen Therapieempfehlungen abgeleitet werden können.

Individuelle Therapieoptionen ergeben sich lediglich aus retrospektiven Fallserien und Einzelfallberichten.

Evidenzlevel
5

Nach ausführlicher Recherche, konnte keine ausreichende Datenlage zur Erstellung einer Empfehlung gefunden werden.

Konsens
Starker Konsens

flHCC ist ein seltener Tumor, welcher vor allem während der Adoleszenz und dem jungen Erwachsenenalter auftritt mit einem medianen Alter von ca. 22 Jahren [442]. Als besonderes Kennzeichen weisen nahezu alle flHCCs das Fusionsgen DNAJB1-PRKACA auf [443]. Kurative Behandlungsoptionen bestehen nur durch eine chirurgische Resektion oder Lebertransplantation. Es gibt bisher keine etablierten Systemtherapien für fortgeschrittene Tumorerkrankungen [442]. Eine Analyse von 300 Fällen aus der Datenbank Surveillance, Epidemiology and End Results Registry (SEER) in den USA zwischen 2000 und 2016 ergab keine signifikante Änderung der Mortalität beim Einsatz von Chemotherapie [444], was eine weitgehende Resistenz gegenüber klassischer Chemotherapie nahelegt.

Systemtherapien in der Literatur orientieren sich an retrospektiven Untersuchungen z.B. Gemcitabin und Oxaliplatin (GEMOX), 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) und Oxaliplatin, 5-FU und Interferon oder Sorafenib, wobei für pädiatrische Fälle eine Orientierung an Hepatoblastom-spezifischen Regimen berichtet worden ist [442][445][446][447]. Reproduzierbare Therapieerfolge aus größeren Studien, abgesehen von Einzelfallberichten mit einer länger anhaltenden Stabilisierung wie unter Sorafenib [448], einer Komplettremission unter GEMOX [449] oder einem Ansprechen auf 5-FU und Interferon bei 5 von 8 Patienten [450] wurden jedoch nicht berichtet.

Eine Analyse von 32 flHCCs zeigte bei 63% eine PD-L1 Expression von Tumorzellen und bei 69% konnte eine positive PD-L1 Expression bei Tumor-infiltrierenden Immunzellen nachgewiesen werden [451], so dass eine Checkpoint-Inhibition oder immuntherapeutische Ansätze als vielversprechende Optionen aktuell diskutiert werden.

Für Checkpointinhibitoren konnte in einer retrospektiven Analyse von 19 Patienten unabhängig vom PD-L1 Status ein Ansprechen bei 3 Patienten (16 %) und eine Krankheitsstabilisierung bei weiteren 4 Patienten (21 %) gezeigt werden [452]. In einem weiteren Bericht erreichte ein Patient mit einer Tumorzellexpression von PD-L1 von 10 % eine Komplettremission mit Nivolumab [448]. Eine anhaltende Komplettremission konnte auch für Nivolumab plus Ipilimumab in einem PD-L1 negativen flHCC mit niedriger Mutationslast (1,6 Var/MB), welches interessanterweise nicht auf eine Therapie mit Atezolizumab angesprochen hat, erreicht werden [453]. Die potenzielle Wirksamkeit von dieser Kombination legt eine weiterer Fallbericht nahe [454]. Bei einem weiteren flHCC mit niedriger Mutationslast (2 Var/MB) und negativer PD-L1 Expression konnte eine Komplettremission mit einer Kombination von 5-FU, IFN alfa-2b und Nivolumab erreicht werden mit nachfolgender Lebertransplantation [455]. Eine Fallserie mit 14 auswertbaren Patienten zeigte unter dieser Dreifachtherapie eine Ansprechrate von 50% mit einem medianen PFS von 9 Monaten [Gottlieb, S et al. 2021]. Zusammenfassend legen diese Beobachtung nahe, dass Checkpoint-Inhibitoren möglicherweise unabhängig von einer PD-L1 Expression oder hohen Mutationslast bei dieser Tumorentität, zumindest in einer Subgruppe, wirksam sein könnten. Für konkrete Therapieempfehlungen werden dringend weitere Studiendaten zur Behandlung des flHCC benötigt.

In Deutschland rekrutiert für diese seltene Tumorerkankung aktuell die Studie Fusi-onVAC22_01 für die Behandlung mit einem DNAJB1-PRKACA-Fusionstranskript ba-sierten Peptidimpfstoff in Kombination mit Atezolizumab [457].

3.5.7 Kombinierte Hepato-Cholangiokarzinome (c(ombined) HCC/CCA))

3.78 · Evidenzbasiertes Statement · geprüft 2024

Für die HCC / CCA Mischtumoren (combined or mixed HCC and CCA; cHCC-CCA) gibt es bisher keine Phase II oder III Studien, aus denen Therapieempfehlungen abgeleitet werden können.

Individuelle Therapieoptionen ergeben sich lediglich aus retrospektiven Fallserien und Einzelfallberichten.

Evidenzlevel
5

Nach ausführlicher Recherche, konnte keine ausreichende Datenlage zur Erstellung einer Empfehlung gefunden werden.

Konsens
Starker Konsens
3.79 · Konsensbasierte Empfehlung · geprüft 2024

In einer palliativen Situation bei Patienten mit ECOG 0 – 1 sollte bei der Diagnose eines cHCC-CCA eine molekulare Charakterisierung des Tumors und Vor-stellung in einem Interdisziplinären/Molekularen Tumorboard erfolgen.

Konsens
Starker Konsens

Findet sich neben der hepatozellulären Differenzierung eine biliäre Differenzierungskomponente liegt die seltene Form eines kombinierten HCC/(i)CCA Mischtumors vor (combined or mixed HCC and CCA; cHCC-CCA) [458][459][460].

Eine detaillierte Charakterisierung von 133 cHCC-CCAs aus dem asiatischen Raum konnte die Heterogenität dieser Gruppe von Tumoren aufzeigen [461]. Die molekularen Muster zeigten in dieser Studie für einige der Tumore Veränderungen die gehäuft beim HCC auftreten, für andere Tumore Muster, die gehäuft beim CCA beobachtet werden. So konnten z.B. bei 6,5% der Fälle FGFR-Fusionen oder bei 5 % IDH1 Mutationen nachgewiesen werden, die beide typischerweise beim CCA auftreten und dort therapierelevant sind [461].

 

Daten für eine Systemtherapie beschränken sich auf retrospektive Analysen und stammen aus den Jahren 1999 bis 2020. Unklar bleibt dabei die Vergleichbarkeit der Charakterisierung dieser seltenen Tumore, da sich die Diagnosekriterien in diesem langen Zeitraum kontinuierlich weiterentwickelt haben. Mit diesen Einschränkungen kann aus den retrospektiven Daten die Tendenz für eine Wirkung einer Platin-haltigen Systemtherapie abgeleitet werden, für Tyrosinkinase-Inhibitoren gibt es widersprüchliche Beobachtungen.

Eine retrospektive Analyse aus Frankreich aus den Jahren 2009 bis 2020 verglich 25 Patienten die mit Tyrosinkinaseinhibitoren (TKIs) behandelt worden sind mit 54 Patienten, die eine Platin-basierte Therapie erhielten. Die Ansprechraten zeigten keine statistischen Unterschied für die Ansprechraten mit 10 % (TKI) bzw. 15 % (Platin-basierte Therapie), das PFS oder OS [462].

In einer retrospektiven Auswertung einer Systemtherapie bei 44 Patienten von 4 Zenteren aus Deutschland und Österreich im Zeitraum 2002 bis 2022 [463], zeigte sich gegenüber Sorafenib ein Trend für ein längeres OS für eine zytotoxische Systemtherapie 15,5 (95% CI 8,0-23) Monate vs. 5,3 (95% CI 0-13,5) Monate in der Erstlinie, allerdings waren die Ergebnisse aufgrund zu geringer Fallzahlen nicht signifikant. Sieben Patienten aus diesem Kollektiv erhielten eine Therapie mit einem Immuncheckpoint-Inhibitor, davon zeigten 2 eine partielle Remission und das mediane Überleben lag in dieser kleinen Gruppe bei 17,8 (95% CI 16,0 - 19,5) Monate [463].

Weitere Hinweise auf eine mögliche Wirksamkeit einer Checkpointinhibitor-Therapie beim cHCC-CCA ergeben sich aus einer retrospektiven Analyse von 25 Patienten aus Südkorea mit einer Ansprechrate von 20% und einer Dauer des Ansprechens von 11,6 Monaten [464], einem Fallbericht mit Komplettremission unter Pembrolizumab aus Schweden [465] und einer Fallserie aus Japan mit drei von sechs Patienten, die eine partielle Remission auf Atezolizumab und Bevacizumab erreichen konnten [466].

In einer weiteren retrospektiven Analyse aus Korea aus dem Zeitraum 1999 bis 2015 wurden von 62 Patienten mit Sorafenib und  Patienten mit Systemtherapie 37 Patienten mit zytotoxischer Chemotherapie behandelt [467]. Die beiden Patientengruppen (Sorafenib vs. Systemtherapie) unterschieden sich nicht in Bezug auf Ansprechrate (10 % vs. 22 %), PFS (4,2 vs. 2,9 Monate) oder medianem Gesamtüberleben (10,7 vs. 10,6 Monaten).

Eine weitere Arbeit aus Japan [468] untersuchte den Verlauf von 36 Patienten aus dem Zeitraum 2002 bis 2015. Die Erstlinientherapie bestanden aus Gemcitabin und Cisplatin (Gem/Cis) bei 12, 5-FU/Cisplatin bei 11 und Sorafenib bei 5 Patienten. Das mediane Gesamtüberleben dieser drei kleine Gruppen lag für Gem/Cis bei 11,9, für 5-FU/Cis bei 10,2 und für Sorafenib bei 3,5 Monaten. Eine multivariate Analyse zeigte einen schlechteren Verlauf mit Sorafenib im Vergleich zu Gem/Cis. Eine kleine retrospektiven Serie von 7 Fällen aus dem Zeitraum 2009 bis 2014 aus den USA konnte eine Krankheitskontrolle nur unter dem Einsatz von Gemcitabin mit einer Platin-haltigen Therapie erreicht werden, nicht jedoch mit Sorafenib oder FOLFIRI [469].

In einer weiteren retrospektiven Untersuchung aus dem Zeitraum zwischen 1999 und 2016 erhielten 57 Patienten eine Gemcitabin-basierte Systemtherapie, 41 kombiniert mit Platin, 16 mit 5-FU [470]. Während das mediane Gesamtüberleben bei beiden Gruppen knapp unter 12 Monaten lag, konnte durch die Kombination mit Platin häufiger eine Krankheitsstabilisierung (78 % vs. 39 %) erreicht werden.

Eine Arbeit aus Frankreich aus dem Zeitraum 2008 bis 2017 legt zumindest eine gewisse Wirksamkeit für die Kombination von Gemcitabin und entweder Cis- oder Oxaliplatin nahe [471]. Behandelt wurden 18 Patienten mit GEMOX, 9 mit GEMOX plus Bevacizumab und 3 mit Gem/Cis. Von 28 auswertbaren Patienten zeigten 8 eine partielle Remission (29 %), 14 eine Krankheitsstabilisierung (50 %) und 6 (21 %) eine Progression bei der ersten Kontrolle. Das mediane PFS betrug 9,0 und das mediane Gesamtüberleben 16,2 Monate.

3.5.8 Adjuvante, perioperative oder neoadjuvante Therapie

Eine zugelassene Systemtherapie für die adjuvante Behandlung liegt bisher nicht vor. Die Phase III IMbrave050-Studie untersuchte die Kombination Atezolizumab und Bevacizumab nach kurativer Resektion oder Ablation. Eingeschlossen wurden Patienten nach vollständiger Entfernung (R0-Resektion) oder Ablation des Tumors ohne makrovaskuläre Invasion (Vp1 und Vp2 konnten eingeschlossen werden) und ohne Fernmetastasen. Weitere Voraussetzung für den Studieneinschluss waren Kriterien für ein hohes Rezidivrisiko, definiert über die Anzahl und Größe bzw. den Differenzierungsgrad der Tumore [472]. In der Intention-to-treat Population mit 668 Patienten zeigte sich ein signifikant besseres Rezidiv-freies Überleben für Atezolizumab und Bevacizumab im Verlgleich zu Placebo. Auffallend dabei ist allerdings eine Konvergenz der beiden Kaplan-Meier Kurven für das Rezidiv-freie Überleben zwischen 18 und 24 Monaten. Aufgrund der frühen Auswertung der Studie mit einer medianen Follow-up Zeit von lediglich 17,4 Monaten ist eine abschließende Bewertung der Rezifiv-freien Zeit bzw. des Gesamtüberlebens bisher nicht möglich. Hierfür sind weitere Daten aus der weiteren Nachbeobachtung der Studie notwendig.

Für andere Substanzen liegt bisher kein Wirkungsnachweis in der Adjuvanz vor. Die STORM-Studie untersuchte Sorafenib als adjuvante Therapie bei Patienten mit HCC nach einer chirurgischen Resektion oder lokalen Ablation [473]. Einschlusskriterien für die Resektion waren eine singuläre Läsion und für die Ablation eine singuläre Läsion ≤ 5 cm bzw. bis zu 3 Läsionen ≤ 3 cm. Weiterhin Child-Pugh ≤ 7, kein Aszites, ECOG 0 und AFP-Wert ≤ 400 ng/ml. Insgesamt wurden 1114 Patienten für Sorafenib oder Placebo randomisiert und über einen Behandlungszeitraum von 4 Jahren oder bis zum Rezidiv behandelt. Der primäre Endpunkt des rezidivfreien Überlebens zeigte keinen Unterschied mit einem medianen Zeitraum von 33,3 Monaten mit Sorafenib und 33,7 Monaten ohne Sorafenib. Es zeigte sich ebenfalls kein Einfluss auf das Gesamtüberleben als sekundärer Endpunkt.

3.80 · Konsensbasierte Empfehlung · geprüft 2024

Wenn Tumoren ohne Fernmetastasen primär nicht als kurativ eingeschätzt wurden und ein Ansprechen unter einer Tumortherapie zeigen, sollte eine erneute Vorstellung im Tumorboard mit der Frage einer sekundären potentiell kurativen Therapie erfolgen.

Konsens
Konsens

In den Zulassungsstudien für A+B oder D+T wurden Ansprechraten (CR + PR) zwischen 20 und 30 % berichtet, zusätzlich konnte bei weiteren Patienten ein Rückgang der Tumorausdehnungen beobachtet werden [391][388]. Vor diesem Hintergrund gewinnt die Überprüfung einer sekundären Resektabilität bei gutem Therapieansprechen auch beim HCC an Bedeutung.

Zunehmend werden kleinere Phase II Studien berichtet, welche den Einsatz von Checkpoint-Inhibitoren perioperativ als machbar einstufen. Interessant sind Beobachtungen, die durch lediglich kurzzeitige präoperative Behandlungen ausgeprägte Nekroseareale in den Tumoren bis zur Komplettremission erreichen können. Diese Beobachtungen sind für den klinischen Alltag bedeutsam, wenn durch ein Therapieansprechen eine sekundäre Operabilität erreicht werden kann. Erste Daten weisen auch darauf hin, dass durch die perioperative Therapie eine Verlängerung des krankheitsfreien Überlebens möglich sein könnte [Vogel, A et al. 2023].

In einer Fallserie von 15 Patienten, die in einem interdisziplinären Board als nicht resektabel eingeschätzt worden sind, erfolgte eine neoadjuvante Therapie mit Cabozantinib über 8 Wochen und die viermalige Gabe von Nivolumab [475]. Geplant war eine chirurgische Reevaluation nach 10 Wochen. Eine Resektion erhielten nachfolgend 12 Patienten (80 %). 5 Tumore zeigten bei der pathologischen Beurteilung mehr als 90 % Tumornekrose mit einer kompletten pathologischen Remission. Nach 12 Monaten zeigten 5 von 12 Patienten jedoch ein Rezidiv.

In einer randomisierten Phase II Studie bei Patienten mit operablem HCC konnte die Machbarkeit einer perioperativen Immuntherapie gezeigt werden [476]. Vor der OP erhielten alle Patienten 3 Gaben Nivolumab, in einem Arm zusätzlich einmalig Ipilimumab. Postoperativ erfolgte zusätzlich eine adjuvante Behandlung mit Nivolumab bis zu 2 Jahre, im Kombinationsarm wurden bis zu 4 Gaben Ipilimumab zusätzlich verabreicht. 2 Patienten mit Nivolumab und 3 Patienten mit der Kombinationstherapie zeigten am pathologischen Präparat eine komplette Remission. Die Datenanalyse ergab erste Hinweise, dass Patienten mit einer Komplettremission ein längeres krankheitsfreies Überleben aufweisen könnten.

Bei 21 Patienten mit operablem HCC, die lediglich zwei Gaben Cemiplimab (PD-1 Antikörper) präoperativ und 8 Zyklen postoperativ erhielten, konnte bei 4 Patienten eine Tumornekrose von mehr als 70 % beschrieben werden, bei einem Patienten eine vollständige Nekrose [477]. Eine weitere Studie bei Patienten mit operablem HCC erfolgte mit 3 Gaben des Antikörpers Camrelizuamb (PD-1 Inhibitor) in Kombination mit Apatinib präoperativ und weiteren 8 Zyklen postoperativ [478]. Nach erfolgreicher Resektion bei 17 Patienten zeigte wiederum ein Patient eine komplette pathologische Resektion und 3 weitere Patienten zwischen 90 % und 99 % Nekroseareale im Tumor.

Zusammenfassend zeigen diese Studien, dass durch kurzfristige Vortherapien unter dem Einsatz von Checkpointinhibitoren ein Ansprechen mit ausgeprägten Nekrosearealen in den Tumoren erreicht werden kann. Ob sich diese Beobachtungen allerdings auf weitere klinisch relevante Parameter übertragen lassen, ist derzeit noch unklar.

3.5.9 Verlaufskontrollen unter Systemtherapie

3.81 · Konsensbasierte Empfehlung · geprüft 2024

Beim HCC unter Systemtherapie sollte alle 6 –12 Wochen die am besten geeignete Schnittbildgebung (CT oder MRT) durchgeführt werden. Die Interpretation im klinischen Alltag sollte sich an den Auswerteprinzipien von RECIST 1.1 und mRECIST, sowie für Patienten unter einer Immuntherapie an iRECIST orientieren.

Konsens
Starker Konsens

3.5.10 HCC bei Kindern und Jugendlichen

3.82 · Konsensbasierte Empfehlung · geprüft 2024

Patienten <18 Jahre sollen einem pädiatrisch onkologischen Zentrum zugewiesen werden.

Konsens
Konsens
3.83 · Konsensbasierte Empfehlung · neu 2024

In einer fortgeschrittenen Situation bei pädiatrischen Patienten mit ECOG 0 – 1 sollte bei der Diagnose eines HCC eine molekulare Charakterisierung des Tumors und Vorstellung in einem Interdisziplinären/Molekularen Tumorboard erfolgen.

Konsens
Starker Konsens

Pädiatrische Patienten mit einem nichtmetastasierten HCC mit kompletter primärer Resektion haben ein ereignisfreies 5-Jahres-Überleben von 80 - 90 %, in allen anderen Situation von 10 - 20 % trotz Versuche mit verschiedensten Chemotherapiekombinationen [479], [480], [481]. Im Gegensatz zu erwachsenen Patienten findet man bei Kindern und Jugendlichen in fast 50 % ein Ansprechen auf Chemotherapie [480]. Es ist unklar, ob eine Chemotherapie nach primärer Resektion einen positiven Effekt hat, ist aber internationaler Standard in der pädiatrischen Onkologie. 

Die Rekrutierung in die PHITT Studie (Pediatric Hepatic International Tumour Trial) konnte am 31.12.2023 beendet werden. Ergebnisse werden in ca. 2-3 Jahren erwartet. Als Interims-Empfehlung konnte sich die SIOPEL Gruppe auf folgendes Vorgehen einigen: Patienten ohne eine Grunderkrankung der Leber erhalten nach primärer Resektion 4 Blöcke Cisplatin/Doxorubicin (PLADO). Patienten mit nicht-R0-resezierbarem oder metastasiertem HCC erhalten Cisplatin/Doxorubicin (PLADO) zusammen mit Sorafenib [482], bei Versagen Gemcitabine/Oxaliplatin (GemOx) und als Drittlinientherapie kann an Immuntherapie gedacht werden. Primäres Ziel ist es, mehr Patienten einer kompletten Remission zuführen zu können. Aufgrund fehlender Standardtherapien bei diesem seltenen Tumor sollte eine molekulare Charakterisierung mit Vorstellung in einem Molekularen Tumorboard erfolgen [483][484][485][486].

Evidenztabellen

HCC PAGE-B, Fib-4
Inhalt: 5 Literaturstellen
Literaturstelle Evidenzlevel Studientyp
Brouwer, W. P. 2017 4 retrospective prognostic study
Ito, T. 2015 3 Prognostic, observational study
Kim, J. H. 2018 4 Retrospective, prognostic study
Song, B. G. 2018 4 Retrospective, prognostic study.
Toyoda, H. 2015 4 Prognostic, retrospective study.


OXFORD (2011) Appraisal Sheet: Prognostic Studies: 5 Bewertung(en)
Funding Sources:  Foundation for Liver Research (SLO), Rotterdam, the Netherlands. This study was supported by the Virgo consortium, funded by the Dutch government project number FES0908, and by the Netherlands Genomics Initiative (NGI) project number 050-060-452.

COI:  The institution of Adriaan J. van der Meer received financial compensation for lecture activities from MSD. Andre Boonstra received grants from Bristol Myers Squibb, Roche, Tibotec and Janssen -Cilag. Harry L.A. Janssen received grants from and is a consultant for: Bristol Myers Squibb, Gilead Sciences, Novartis, Roche and Merck. The other authors have nothing to disclose.

Randomization:  none

Blinding:   Biopsies were re-scored by a single experienced hepato-pathologist who was blinded to the patient characteristics and outcome.

Dropout Rate/ITT-Analysis:  Survival and HCC status was available for 515 (92.6%) patients, 41 (7.2%) patients emigrated and were censored at the last follow -up visit, ; follow -up data of 1 patient (0.2%) could not be retrieved.

Notes:  CEBM Level 4 (Retrospective, observational study).
Brouwer, W. P. et al. Prediction of long-term clinical outcome in a diverse chronic hepatitis B population: Role of the PAGE-B score. J Viral Hepat. 24. 1023-1031. 2017
Population Intervention Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  4

Study type:  retrospective prognostic study

Number of Patient:  557 patients (323 excluded) mono -infected treatment -naïve CHB (HBsAg positive for >6 months) patients; tertiary care centre in Rotterdam,
the Netherlands.

Recruitung Phase:  consecutively biopsied in the period of 1985– 2012

Inclusion Criteria:  mono -infected treatment -naïve CHB (HBsAg positive for >6 months).

Exclusion Criteria:  In case of a history of antiviral therapy for the duration of > 1 month prior to or at the time of biopsy, a current or past co-infection with hepatitis C, D, E or human immunodeficiency virus, presence of auto -immune liver disease, primary biliary cirrhosis, Wilson’s disease, hemochromatosis or any other co -existing primary liver disease, or treatment with immune suppressive medication for more than 6 months prior to or at the time of biopsy.
Intervention:  Risk scores:
-PAGE-B
- REACH-B
- FIB4
- Log APRI
- GAG-HCC
- CU-HCC

Comparison:  -
Primary:  The occurrence of liver failure (defined as an episode of jaundice, ascites, hepatic encephalopathy or gastro-duodenal bleeding due to varices), HCC development, liver transplantation and all -cause mortality was studied.

Secondary:  -

Results:  Mean follow up time was: 10.1 years (interquartile range 5.7 – 15.9, maximum 27.3 years).
Events during follow up: 40 patients experienced a clinical event:
- 10 patients developed liver failure,
- 15 patients were diagnosed with HCC,
- 7 patients underwent liver transplantation, and
- 31 patients died (ten patients died of a liver - related cause (7 due to HCC, and 3 as a result of liver failure), 8 died of liver -unrelated
causes ( of which 1 patient had a n HCC) and for 13 patients the cause of death was unknown.

The overall 5, 10 and 20 -year event -free survival was 97.6%, 94.0% and 86.8%, respectively.

Factors associated with long-term clinical outcome:
By multivariable analysis, factors independently associated with clinical outcome were the PAGE -B
score (HR 1.27, 95%CI: 1.2 – 1.4, p<0.001) and the Ishak fibrosis stage (HR 1.38, 95%CI: 1.1– 1.7,p=0.003).

Non-invasive scores versus liver biopsy for the prediction of clinical outcome:
PAGE-B score for the prediction of any clinical event was 0.86(95%CI: 0.80– 0.92), and was 0.83 (95%CI: 0.76– 0.91) for reduced transplant-free survival and 0.91 (95%CI: 0.82 – 0.9 9) for HCC development ( overall highest C-statistic compared to the other non-invasive scores).
The other non -invasive prognostic measures showed a lower C-statistic for all respective outcomes.

When the Ishak stage was combined with the PAGE-B, the prediction for any clinical event improved(C-statistic 0.87, 95%CI: 0.82– 0.93).
Within patients with advanced fibrosis or Asian patients the C -statistics were comparable to the FIB -4 and REACH -B.

Prediction of HCC development in Asian patients (who received antiviral therapy after liver biopsy) C -statistics obtained with the PAGE-B was higher than the REACH -B: 0.75(95%CI: 0.53– 0.97) for the PAGE-B versus 0.69 (95%CI: 0.61 – 0.78) for the REACH-B, respectively.

Additional prognostic value of the Ishak stage combined with PAGE-B. Within the first 10 years of follow -up, the PAGE -B score alone correctly classified all patients who developed HCC into the intermediate– high HCC risk group (PAGE-B >10 corresponding to an HCC risk >0.2% at year 5 [4/4 cases] and >0.6% at year 10 [10/10 cases]) and no patients were incorrectly reclassified (NRI=0).

Author's Conclusion:  In conclusion, we have shown that the PAGE-B score was the best performing non-invasive score to predict the clinical outcome of CHB patients of different origin and within different subgroups. The Ishak stage did not clinically improve the risk prediction of the PAGE -B score. When
further validated, this score could additionally be used to assess the need for antiviral therapy and HCC surveillance.
Methodical Notes

Funding Sources:  none

COI:  none

Randomization:  n.s.

Blinding:  n.s.

Dropout Rate/ITT-Analysis:  -

Notes:  CEBM Level of Evidence: 3 oder 4 (prognostic observational study)

Authors limitation:

-histological confirmations for liver fibrosis were obtained in partial patients.
-study did not investigate the changes of FIB-4 index over the years.
Ito, T. et al. Utility of the FIB-4 Index for hepatocarcinogenesis in hepatitis C virus carriers with normal alanine aminotransferase levels. J Viral Hepat. 22. 777-83. 2015
Population Intervention Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  3

Study type:  Prognostic, observational study

Number of Patient:  from 4620 patients tested 516 patients fulfill all inclusion parameters.

Recruitung Phase:  September 1995 and August 2004.

Inclusion Criteria:  Patients tested positive for HCV, positive for HCV RNA for at least 2 time points with a >6 month interval, had no evidence of
hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection, had no other potential causes of chronic liver disease (i.e. alcohol consumption < 80 g/day, no history of hepatotoxic drug use and negative tests for autoimmune hepatitis, primary biliary cirrhosis, hemochromatosis and Wilson’s disease), had a follow-up period >3 years, had no evidence of HCC at study entry and for at least 3 years from the start of the follow-up period, had no antiviral therapy involving interferon and/or ribavirin, had ALT measurements taken more than twice
annually and had ALT values < 40 IU/L.

Exclusion Criteria:  
Intervention:  FIB-4 index (was calculated at the start of follow-up) and a new scoring system that combines the FIB-4 index and AFP. The total score was the sum of the FIB-4 index and AFP scores. We estimated the incidence of hepatocarcinogenesis with this new scoring system.

Comparison:  AFP (AFP was measured in 477 patients at the start of follow-up period).
Primary:  HCC incidence:
- time integral of the ALT level (‘integration value’) would be more useful for predicting the incidence of HCC.
- Ultrasonography (US) and blood tests including the tumour marker AFP were performed every 3 to 6 months for HCC surveillance. The diagnosis of HCC was confirmed through histological examination or via typical radiological findings.

Secondary:  Factors associated with incidence of HCC.

Results:  The median follow-up period was 11.3 years.

Incidence of HCC: HCC developed in 60 of 516 patients (11.6%). The incidence rate of HCC at 5 and 10 years were 2.6% and 17.6%, respectively.

Factors associated with the incidence of hepatocarcinogenesis (multivariate analysis): FIB-4 index >2.0 (hazard ratio (HR), 7.690 [95% confidence interval (CI), 2.636–22.438]; P < 0.001) and FIB-4 index >4.0 (HR, 8.991 [95% CI, 3.088– 26.178]; P < 0.001), AFP >5 ng/mL (HR, 2.742 [95% CI, 1.497–5.023]; P < 0.001) and AFP >10 ng/mL (HR, 4.915 [95% CI, 2.353–10.267]; P < 0.001) and total bilirubin >1.2 mg/dL (HR, 2.142 [95% CI, 1.115–4.117]; P = 0.022).

Relationship between the FIB-4 index and AFP: There were no significant correlation between the FIB-4 index and AFP based on Spearman’s rank correlation (r = 0.023, P = 0.63).

Incidence of hepatocarcinogenesis based on the combined FIB-4 index and AFP score 5 categories in the scoring system that combines the FIB-4 index and AFP level (2–6 points). The incidence rate of HCC increased as the score increased (2 vs 3, P < 0.001; 3 vs 4 points, P = 0.070; 4 vs 5 points P = 0.011; and 5 vs 6 points; P = 0.270). This scoring system reflected patient survival well.

Author's Conclusion:  In conclusion, the FIB-4 index was closely associated with the risk of HCC in hepatitis C virus carriers with normal ALT levels. Furthermore, we showed that the risk of HCC could be well stratified according to a scoring system that combines the FIB-4 index and AFP.
Methodical Notes

Funding Sources:  This study was supported by a grant from 2017 Kangwon National University Hospital, a fund from Gangwon branch of the Korean
Association for the Study of the Liver, 2015 Research Grant from the Kangwon National University (grant number: 520150354), a research grant from Hanmi Pharmaceutical Co, Ltd, and a grant from Basic Science Research Program through the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by the Ministry of Education (grant number: 2017R1D1A1B03031499).

COI:  none.

Randomization:  none.

Blinding:  n.s.

Dropout Rate/ITT-Analysis:  none.

Notes:  CEBM Level of evidence: 4 (retrospective, prognostic study).
Kim, J. H. et al. Validation of modified fibrosis-4 index for predicting hepatocellular carcinoma in patients with compensated alcoholic liver cirrhosis. Medicine (Baltimore). 97. e13438. 2018
Population Intervention Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  4

Study type:  Retrospective, prognostic study

Number of Patient:  924 consecutive Asian patients with compensated ALC.

Recruitung Phase:  January 1, 2007 and December 31, 2015.

Inclusion Criteria:  Patients listes in the inpatient and outpatient database at Kangwon National University Hospital (Chuncheon, Korea); the time limit of abstinence accepted for inclusion criteria was 2 years. We included the patients who had compensated cirrhosis when the non-invasive fibrosis tests were performed at baseline.

Exclusion Criteria:  1. aged <18 or="">85 years;
2. developed HCC within 12 months from the date of cirrhosis diagnosis;
3. diagnosed with HCC before study enrollment;
4. diagnosed with infection of hepatitis B, hepatitis C, and other hepatotropic viruses or human immunodeficiency virus; or
5. had a medical history indicating active alcoholism, liver transplantation, or decompensated cirrhosis.
Patients with decompensated cirrhosis at baseline (n=32) were excluded.
Intervention:  - fibrosis-4 (FIB4) index,
- the aspartate aminotransferase (AST)-to-platelet ratio index (APRI),
- modified fibrosis-4 index (mFIB-4),
- the easy liver fibrosis test (eLIFT)

Comparison:  see intervention.
Primary:  Compare the performance of the mFIB-4 index, eLIFT score, FIB-4 index, and APRI for HCC development at 3 years of follow-up.
Patients regularly underwent clinical examinations and liver function tests every 6 months. The primary modality for HCC surveillance in this study was ultrasonography in combination with serum alpha-fetoprotein levels in accordance with current guidelines of South Korea.

Secondary:  -

Results:  Follow-up period (median 58 month).

HCC development:
- patients who developed HCC (n=83, 9.0%)
- patients who did not (n=841, 91.0%).
Age, serum creatinine levels, mFIB-4 index, FIB-4 index, and APRI were significantly higher in patients who developed HCC than in those without HCC (all values: P<.05 however="" serum="" albumin="" levels="" and="" platelet="" counts="" were="" significantly="" lower="" in="" patients="" who="" developed="" hcc="" than="" those="" without="" values:="" p="">
Predictive performances of four risk prediction models for HCC development (3 years):
Highest: mFIB-4 index, AUROC=0.71, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.64–0.78,
followed by: FIB-4 index, AUROC=0.69, 95% CI: 0.63– 0.75),
- APRI, AUROC=0.61, 95% CI: 0.56–0.66, and
- eLIFT score, AUROC=0.56, 95% CI: 0.50–0.62.
The AUROCs of the mFIB-4 index were significantly higher than those of APRI and eLIFT scores at 3 years (all P<.05 no="" significant="" difference="" in="" aurocs="" was="" found="" between="" the="" mfib-4="" and="" fib-4="" indexes="" at="" years="" multivariable="" analysis="" revealed="" that="" older="" age="" ci:="" p=".001)" index="" were="" independent="" predictors="" of="" hcc="" development="">Sensitivities of non-invasive tests based on tumor size:
The mFIB-4 index tended to show higher sensitivities irrespective of tumor size compared with other non-invasive tests.
Predictive performance: mFIB-4 better for tumors ≤ 5 cm in size, for tumors >5 cm in size, the FIB-4 index tended to better predict HCC development than other non-invasive tests.


Author's Conclusion:  In conclusion, the mFIB-4 index, a newly developed noninvasive marker of liver fibrosis, can predict HCC and stratify HCC risk in patients with ALC. This result indicates that this index can help clinicians make surveillance strategies based on individual risk.
Methodical Notes

Funding Sources:  n.s.

COI:  none.

Randomization:  n.s.

Blinding:  n.s.

Dropout Rate/ITT-Analysis:  -

Notes:  CEBAM Level of evidence: EL 4 (Retrospective, prognostic study).

Limitations: by authors
- follow up duration (short)
- patients population developing hcc small (3,6%)
Song, B. G. et al. Additional role of liver stiffness measurement in stratifying residual hepatocellular carcinoma risk predicted by serum biomarkers in chronic hepatitis B patients under antiviral therapy. Eur J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 30. 1447-1452. 2018
Population Intervention Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  4

Study type:  Retrospective, prognostic study.

Number of Patient:  4046 consecutive TE exams were screened, 1045 patients fulfilled the inclusion criteria. After exclusion of 31 patients due to the exclusion criteria, finally 1015 adult chronic HBV monoinfected patients without malignancy at baseline who were taking NUCs for at least a year and had at least 6 months of followup were analyzed.

Recruitung Phase:  March 2012 and December 2014

Inclusion Criteria:  Patients at Samsung Medical Center, Seoul, Korea.
(i) adults aged 18 years and older;
(ii) chronic HBV infection confirmed by hepatitis B surface antigen positivity for more than 6 months or compatible
clinical history;
(iii) no history or current malignancy;
(iv) no co-infection with hepatitis C virus or HIV;
(v) under NUCs therapy for at least a year at the time of LS measurement; and
(vi) a reliable liver stiffness measurement (LSM), as defined by at least 10 valid measurements, a success rate of at least 60%, and an interquartile range-to-median ratio of less than 30%.

Exclusion Criteria:  31 patients (of the 1045 patients) were excluded as they developed HCC within 6 months (n=9) or had follow-up duration less than 6 months after LS measurement (n=22).
Intervention:  The follow-up period started at the time of LS measurement to the development of HCC or last follow-up, whichever came first. Exposures were the fibrosis markers: LS, APRI, and FIB-4.

Comparison:  -
Primary:  Diagnosis of HCC during the follow-up.

Patients receiving NUCs therapy were monitored on a regular basis, typically every 3–6 months, for biochemical response, virological response, and side effects. HCC surveillance was usually performed with ultrasonography and a serum α-fetoprotein measurement at 6-month intervals.

Secondary:  -

Results:  Follow up: median of 3.9 years (range: 0.5–5.3 years).

HCC was newly diagnosed in 37 (3.6%) patients. These 37 patients had significantly different characteristics from patients who were not diagnosed with HCC. They were older, more likely to be male, had higher AST levels, and lower platelet counts. The fibrosis markers, LS, APRI, and FIB-4 were all significantly higher for those who developed HCC.

Hepatocellular carcinoma risk by serum noninvasive predictors of liver fibrosis:
The HCC incidence rate at 3 years was higher for those with a higher degree of liver fibrosis, as estimated by the
APRI (2.0 vs. 6.9% for APRI< 0.5 vs. ≥0.5, P< 0.001) and
FIB-4 (1.3 vs. 5.2% for FIB-4< 1.45 vs. ≥1.45, P< 0.001) scores, respectively.
The HCC risk was significantly higher for those with both high APRI and FIB-4 compared with those with both low APRI and FIB-4 scores.

Hepatocellular carcinoma risk stratified by serum biomarker and liver stiffness values
The HCC incidence rate at 3 years was higher for those with higher LS values (1.4 vs. 5.3% for LS<6 vs="" 6="" p="" 0="" 001="" br=""> The combination of the LS values and serum biomarkers showed better performance for stratifying HCC risk.

Author's Conclusion:  This study showed that TE can further stratify the CHBrelated HCC risk over the serum biomarkers in patients under AVT. The combined use of TE and serum biomarkers provided an additional benefit compared with the combination of only the serum biomarkers. Therefore, TE may be useful for improving current HCC surveillance strategies by further subdividing the HCC risk.
Methodical Notes

Funding Sources:  None

COI:  None

Randomization:  no

Blinding:  no

Dropout Rate/ITT-Analysis:  51 of 522 patients (9.8%) were lost for follow-up during the study period after 2.3-18.2 years’ follow-up, who were treated as censored cases.

Notes:  CEBM Level of Evidence: 4 (Study is retrospective based on the laboratory data and medical record).

Limitations:
Study population = number of patients developing HCC was small: 18 patients (=4.3% after 10 years).
Toyoda, H. et al. Risk factors of hepatocellular carcinoma development in non-cirrhotic patients with sustained virologic response for chronic hepatitis C virus infection. J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 30. 1183-9. 2015
Population Intervention Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  4

Study type:  Prognostic, retrospective study.

Number of Patient:  1285 patients with chronic HCV infection underwent IFN-based antiviral therapy. Out of these 522 patients achieved SVR.

Recruitung Phase:  1990 and 2012

Inclusion Criteria:  Patients with chronic HCV infection underwent IFN-based antiviral therapy (with SVR). Patients of Ogaki Municipal Hospital, Japan.

Exclusion Criteria:  Patients were excluded if they had antibodies against human immunodeficiency virus or hepatitis B virus surface antigen or other forms of liver disease (e.g., autoimmune hepatitis, alcoholic liver disease, or hemochromatosis). Patients with cirrhosis were not included because IFN-based antiviral therapy is not permitted by the Japanese National Medical Insurance System for patients who had cirrhosis at the start of the antiviral therapy.
Intervention:  FIB-4, APRI

Comparison:  Liver biopsy was performed in 494 patients prior to the start of antiviral therapy. Liver histology was classified according to the METAVIR score. Patients continued to follow-up every six months after SVR with laboratory testing and ultrasonography at every visit.
Primary:  The diagnosis of HCC was based on appropriate imaging characteristics according to criteria in the guidelines of the American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases with the findings of arterial hypervascularity and venous or delayed phase washout by contrast-enhanced dynamic computed tomography or magnetic resonance imaging. In addition, HCC was confirmed histologically based on the resected specimen when patients underwent surgical resection as a treatment.

Secondary:  risk factors

Results:  Median follow-up of 7.2 years (range, 1.0-22.9 years).

HCC was diagnosed in 18 patients. The incidence of HCC at five and ten years was 1.2 % and 4.3 %, respectively.

Risk factors: Presence of diabetes mellitus (RR 2.08; P = 0.0453) and higher FIB-4 index at SVR24 (RR 1.73; P = 0.0198) were selected as a factor significantly associated with a higher likelihood of HCC according to the multivariate analysis.

FIB-4 Index: Patients were classified as having a FIB-4 index of < 2.0 or ≥ 2.0. The incidence of HCC in patients with a FIB-4 index ≥ 2.0 was significantly higher than that of patients with FIB-4 index < 2.0 (P = 0.0001).

Characteristics of Patients Who Developed Hepatocellular Carcinoma after SVR:
AFP level increased significantly at HCC development, compared to the baseline AFP level (P = 0.0437).
APRI at HCC development was significantly lower than that at SVR24 (P = 0.0424), no significant decrease was observed in FIB-4 index between at SVR24 and at HCC development (P = 0.1750).
Liver fibrosis progressed to cirrhosis at the development of HCC in 6 of 15 patients (40.0%) who underwent surgical resection as a treatment of HCC and non-cancerous liver tissue at HCC development was available.

Author's Conclusion:  In conclusion, the incidence of HCC was 1.2 % at five years and 4.3 % at ten years in non-cirrhotic patients with chronic HCV infection who achieved the eradication of HCV with IFN-based antiviral therapy in Japan. The risk of HCC after SVR was not associated with the antiviral treatment regimen that eradicated HCV. Presence of diabetes mellitus and the elevation of FIB-4 index at SVR24 are at risk factors of HCC
after SVR.
Methodical Notes

HCC Kaffeekonsum

Schlüsselfrage:

Ergänzende Literaturrecherche Senkt Kaffeekonsum das Risiko der HCC-Entstehung?

Inhalt: 2 Literaturstellen
Literaturstelle Evidenzlevel Studientyp
Aleksandrova, K. 2015 4 Prospective nested case-control study using data from the EPIC cohort.
Bravi, F. 2017 1 Systematic review and meta-analysis. (11 studies for HCC, 6 for CLD)


OXFORD (2011) Appraisal Sheet: Systematic Reviews: 1 Bewertung(en)
Bravi, F. et al. Coffee and the risk of hepatocellular carcinoma and chronic liver disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies. Eur J Cancer Prev. 26. 368-377. 2017
Evidence level/Study Types P - I - C Outcomes/Results Literature References
Evidence level:  1

Study type:  Systematic review and meta-analysis. (11 studies for HCC, 6 for CLD)
Databases:  Medline/Pubmed and Embase

Search period:  Inception? - June 2015

Inclusion Criteria:  (a) were based on original prospective cohort studies onhumans; (b) were focused
on primary HCC (or liver cancer, when separate estimates for HCC were not available), or CLD; (c) provided information on the association between coffee consumption and one of the outcomes of interest, including estimates of the RR, with the corresponding CIs, or sufficient information to calculate them; and (d) were published as full-length papers in English.
Case–control studies nested in a prospective cohort were also included this type of study.

Exclusion Criteria:  not meeting inclusion criteria.
Population:  In the present meta-analyses, we combined results from 12 studies on HCC and 6 studies on CLD, including 3414 cases of liver cancer (2154 of which were specified as HCC) and 1463 cases of CLD, respectively.

Intervention:  Exposure to coffee.

Comparison:  Non-exposure to coffee.
Primary:  HCC or CLD risk.

Secondary:  -

Results:  Primary: Meta-analysis of coffee consumption and risk of HCC: The summary RRs for HCC were 0.66 [95% confidence interval (CI): 0.55–0.78] for regular, 0.78 (95% CI: 0.66–0.91) for low, and 0.50 (95% CI: 0.43–0.58) for high coffee consumption, respectively. The summary RR for an increment of one cup per day was 0.85 (95% CI: 0.81–0.90).
Secondary: Meta-analysis of coffee consumption and risk of CLD. The summary RRs forCLD were 0.62 (95% CI: 0.47–0.82) for regular, 0.72 (95% CI:
0.59–0.88) for low, 0.35 (95% CI: 0.22–0.56) for high, and 0.74 (95% CI: 0.65–0.83) for an increment of one cup per day.

Author's Conclusion:  "The present meta-analysis provides a precise quantification of the inverse relation between coffee consumption and the risk of HCC, and adds evidence to the presence of an even stronger negative association with CLD. Thus, the apparent consistency of these results among prospective studies and with results from case–control studies (Bravi et al., 2013), as well as across different populations, the presence of dose–response relations, the strength of the RR, especially among heavy coffee drinkers, and the biological plausibility support the hypothesis that the inverse relation between coffee drinking and
HCC is causal. The evidence for CLD goes in the same direction, but it is based on a smaller number of studies and cases, requiring more data before a conclusion in terms of causality can be drawn."
Bamia et al. 2015, Int J Cancer 136:1899–1908.
Hu et al. 2015, Hepatology 48:129–136.
Inoue et al. 2005, J Natl Cancer Inst 97:293–300.
Inoue et al. 2009, Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 18:1746–1753.
Johnson et al. 2011, Cancer Causes Control 22:503–510.
Kurozawa et al. 2005, Br J Cancer 93:607–610.
Lai et al. 2013, Br J Cancer 109:1344–1351.
Ohishi et al. 2008, Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 17:846–854.
Petrick et al. 2015, Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 24:1398–1406.
Setiawan et al. 2015, Gastroenterology 148:118–125.
Shimazu et al .2005, Int J Cancer 116:150–154.
CLD articles not listed here
Methodical Notes
Funding Sources:  not described.

COI:  P.B. has acted as an expert in coffee-related ligation. All other authors have no conflicts of interests to disclose.

Study Quality:  The Newcastle–Ottawa Scale was used to assess the quality of individual studies. "The quality score ranged between 5 and 8 for studies on HCC and between 4 and 8 for studies on CLD (with a median score of 7 for both outcomes). We decided not to exclude any of the studies from the analyses for a low quality score."

Heterogeneity:  Meta-analysis using random effect models (DerSimonian and Laird, 1986). Heterogeneity investigated using the χ2-test (Greenland and Longnecker, 1992) and
quantified using the I2-statistic, which represents the percentage of the total variation across studies that is attributable to heterogeneity rather than
chance (Higgins and Thompson, 2002). Heterogeneity was defined as a P-value less than 0.10.

Publication Bias:  "We evaluated the presence of publication bias through visualization of the funnel plot."
No asymmetry was evident in the funnel plot and Egger’s test was not statistically significant, thus reassuring against a major role of publication bias.

Notes:  
Oxford level of evidence: 1 Systematic review and meta-analysis.
Notes: High heterogeneity between studies, I2 estimates not displayed in the forest plots. The authors claim that among other factors the data for adjusting for HepB,C are not availabe in many studies.

NEWCASTLE - OTTAWA Checklist: Case Control: 1 Bewertung(en)
Aleksandrova, K. et al. The association of coffee intake with liver cancer risk is mediated by biomarkers of inflammation and hepatocellular injury: data from the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition. Am J Clin Nutr. 102. 1498-508. 2015
Evidence level Methodical Notes Patient characteristics Interventions
Evidence level:  4

Study type:  Prospective nested case-control study using data from the EPIC cohort.
Funding sources:  Serveral governmental grants including a grant from the German Research Foundation (DFG NO446/7-1),

Conflict of Interests:  None of the authors reported any conflicts of interest related to the study.

Randomization:  -

Blinding:  Lab workers were blinded regarding status.

Dropout rates:  -
Total no. patients:  125 incident HCC cases matched to 250 controls

Patient characteristics:  EPIC was designed to identify nutritional, lifestyle, metabolic, and genetic risk factors for cancer. In brief, in the period 1992– 2000, ca. 520,000 apparently healthy men and women aged 35– 75 y from 10 European countries (Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Sweden, and the United Kingdom) enrolled in the study.

Inclusion criteria:  Lacking description for EPIC cohort in the article.
Lacking description for inclusion in the current study: Assuming the deevelopment of HCC over specified period.

Exclusion criteria:  Exclusion of cases with other types of cancer before the index case (n = 18), metastatic cases (n = 23) or cases with ineligible histological subtypes (n = 31),
Interventions:  Exposure to Coffee. Coffe intake was evaluated using questionnaires.


Comparison:  Non-exposure to Coffee.
Notes: Oxford level of evidence: 4 Case control study.
NOS Scale: 6/9:
Comments:
Unclear or missing description of inclusion criteria or validation for HCC cases. Unsure if cases are representative or not. Significant differences between groups (smoking, anthropometric, hepatitis status). These were adjusted in the multivariable model. Coffee consumption was ascertained with questionnaires, not blinded interviews.

Author's conclusion:  "In conclusion, the association of coffee intake with HCC risk in this large European cohort study was statistically accounted for by biomarkers of inflammation and hepatocellular injury. Because of difficulties in conducting long-term randomized trials to test these relations, our findings may provide important insights into the current knowledge on the prevention of HCC—one of the
most lethal tumors in the world."
Outcome Measures/results Primary  Hepatocellular carcinoma.

Secondary  Investigation of mediatiors on the association between coffee consumption and HCC risk (metabolic, inflammatory, liver injury, and iron metabolism).
Results:  Population Characteristics:
125 HCC cases were identified that occurred over a median of 5 y following recruitment (range:+ 2.4–6.8 y). With the use of risk set sampling, 2 controls per case were selected at random from all cohort members who had
donated blood and were alive and cancer-free at the time of liver cancer diagnosis of the index case and were matched to the case on study center, sex, age (±12 mo), date of blood collection, fasting status, and time of day at blood collection. Women were additionally matched according to menopausal status [premenopausal, perimenopausal (or unknown), or postmenopausal] and exogenous
hormone use (yes, no, or missing) at blood donation.
32% female patients, age 60.1±6.6 years in both groups. Significant group differences in the group distribution regarding smoking, antropomorphic factors and many biomarkers, but were adjusted in the association.
Results: Primary:
The multivariable-adjusted RR of having ≥4 cups (600mL)coffee/d compared with <2 cups="" 300="" ml="" d="" was="" 0="" 25="" 95="" ci:="" 0="" 11="" 0="" 62="" p-trend="0.006).
Secondary:
In the multivariable linear regresision coffee intake was positively associated
with C-peptide and inversely with IL-6, GLDH, ALT, AST, GGT, alkaline phosphatase, total bilirubin, and AFP.
Medation analysis: A statistically significant attenuation of the association between coffee intake and HCC risk and thereby suspected mediation was confirmed for the inflammatory biomarker IL-6 and for the biomarkers of hepatocellular injury glutamate dehydrogenase, alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase (AST), g-glutamyltransferase (GGT), and total bilirubin, which—in combination—attenuated the regression coefficients by 72% (95%CI: 7%, 239%). Of the investigated biomarkers, IL-6, AST, and GGT produced the highest change in the regression coefficients: 40%, 56%, and 60%, respectively.

HCC Früherkennung

Schlüsselfrage:

Welche Vorsorgeuntersuchung bei Patienten mit Leberzirrhose soll zur Früherkennung eines Hepatozellulären Karzinoms durchgeführt werden?

Inhalt: 3 Literaturstellen
Literaturstelle Evidenzlevel Studientyp
Pocha, C. 2013 2 RCT
Trinchet, J. C. 2011 2 Multicenter, randomized trial; included were patients from 43 specialist liver disease centers in French and Belgium.
Zhang, B. H. 2004 2 RCT


OXFORD (2011) Appraisal Sheet: RCT: 3 Bewertung(en)
Funding Sources:  The study was supported in part by the Department of Veterans Affairs Hepatitis C Resource Centers and the Research Service of the Minneapolis VA Health Care System.

COI:  None.

Randomization:  A computer-generated random number list was used to allocate and randomize subjects to ultrasonography every 6 months or triple-phase contrast CT every 12 months.

Blinding:  n.a.

Dropout Rate/ITT-Analysis:  Two subjects did not receive an imaging study after enrollment and were excluded from this analysis.
A total of 57 (34.9%) subjects, 30 assigned to the CT-arm and 27 to the ultrasonography-arm were no longer receiving their initially assigned screening test for the following reasons: non-adherence to the protocol 12/57; withdrawal active participation in assigned screening arm 8/57; contrast allergy 4/57; followed by transplant centre 10/57; non liver-related death 6/57; patient moved 9/57; other 8/57.

In the intention-to-treat analysis including all 163 study patients, a total of 17 HCC with 9/83 (10.8%) in the ultrasonography-arm and 8/80 (10.0%) in the CT arm were found. Pearson chi-square testing was not significant (chi-quadrat (1) = 1.27, P = 0.86].

Notes:  
Limitations:
Our study has several limitations, including long enrolment period, relatively small sample size, predominance of Caucasian race and performance of the study in an all-male veteran’ population, making generalisability to other US populations difficult.
Pocha, C. et al. Surveillance for hepatocellular cancer with ultrasonography vs. computed tomography -- a randomised study. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 38. 303-12. 2013
Population Intervention - Comparison Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  2

Study type:  RCT

Number of Patient:  163 subjects (American veterans; the mean age was 59.3, 83.6% were Caucasian and 99.4% were male).
106 subjects were actively being screened (50 followed in the CT-arm and 56 followed in the ultrasonography-arm).

Recruitung Phase:   June 6, 2002 and February 8, 2011.

Inclusion Criteria:  1) aged 18–70 years,
2) had Child’s A cirrhosis and
3) were potential candidates for treatment of HCC.
All patients were required to have no evidence of any liver mass by abdominal imaging within 12 months prior to enrollment.

Exclusion Criteria:  Key exclusion criteria were active malignancy other than non melanoma skin cancer and not being an acceptable candidate for treatment of HCC secondary to advanced medical conditions (severe cardiovascular or pulmonary disease, Child C cirrhosis). We excluded patients who were unable to receive IV contrast secondary to advanced renal insufficiency or allergy and patients with a history of a hepatic mass identified on imaging study.
Intervention:  AFP was obtained in every patient for every 6 months. Ultrasonography was performed by designated
technicians using a standardized protocol for scanning the liver and documenting findings.

Comparison:  The triple-phase contrast CT was performed per institutional protocol to assure correct timing of arterial, venous and late contrast phase.
Primary:  The endpoint of the study was a lesion consistent with HCC histologically or by imaging criteria according to Barcelona Clinic Liver Cancer (BCLC) guidelines.

Secondary:  Total costs.

Results:  Hepatocellular cancer incidence rate was 6.6% per year. Sensitivity and specificity of ultrasonography for HCC detection were 71.4% and 97.5%, respectively, with a positive predictive value (PPV) of 83.3% and a negative predictive value (NPV) of 95.1%.
Sensitivity and specificity of CT for HCC detection were 66.7% and 94.4%, respectively, with a PPV of 50.0% and NPV of 97.1%.

The mean survival of all subjects with HCC after diagnosis was 19.9 months.

There was no difference in number and size of lesions detected by either ultrasonography or CT regardless of the different screening interval in each screening arm.

An elevated baseline AFP (mean 30 ng/mL in the CTarm – 55 ng/mL in the ultrasonography-arm) compared with normal AFP using a cut-off level of 20 ng/mL was the only significant predictor in all patients who developed HCC (P = 0.02; OR: 1.78; 95% CI: 1.08–2.93). Sensitivity and specificity of AFP using cut-off level of 20 ng/mL were 70.6% and 86.3%, respectively, which confirms data reported in the literature.

The cost to detect one HCC with ultrasonography ranges from $12 069 in the VHA system to $17 041 in non-VHA care setting. If CT is used as the preferred screening tool, the cost estimates range from $18 768 for patients in VHA care to $57 383 in non-VHA care.

Author's Conclusion:  Biannual ultrasonography was marginally more sensitive and less costly for detection of early HCC compared with annual CT. Despite early detection, HCC-related mortality was high. These data support the use of biannual ultrasonography for HCC surveillance in a US patient population.
Methodical Notes

Funding Sources:  Grants from the French Ministry of Health (PHRC P980902 and P03009) and from the Ligue Nationale Contre le Cancer (Paris, France).

COI:   Dr. Bronowicki received grants from Gore and Schering-Plough.

Randomization:  Study design based on a two-by-two factorial design with balanced randomization, to compare two US periodicities (3 months versus 6 months). Randomization was computer-generated, with allocation concealed using a centralized phone procedure to the data-management center.

Blinding:  n.a.

Dropout Rate/ITT-Analysis:  Based on a 5% expected yearly incidence of HCC, within 3 years of follow-up, a sample size of at least 1,200 patients was computed to be needed. The minimal number of patients to include in the trial (n = 1,200) was reached in May 2005) the steering committee decided to stop further inclusions into
the trial by March 2006. At that time, 1,340 patients were included.
62 were subsequently excluded from analysis after revision of individual data due to either immediate loss to followup (n = 12) or to the presence of a focal liver lesion at inclusion (n =50).

Notes:  
Trinchet, J. C. et al. Ultrasonographic surveillance of hepatocellular carcinoma in cirrhosis: a randomized trial comparing 3- and 6-month periodicities. Hepatology. 54. 1987-97. 2011
Population Intervention - Comparison Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  2

Study type:  Multicenter, randomized trial; included were patients from 43 specialist liver disease centers in French and Belgium.

Number of Patient:  1,340 patients. 62 were subsequently excluded from analysis (see drop-out rates). Consequently, the final analyses were performed on 1,278 patients.

Recruitung Phase:  June 2000 until March 2006.

Inclusion Criteria:  (1) age older than 18 years;
(2) histologically proven cirrhosis, whatever the time of biopsy;
(3) cirrhosis related to either excessive alcohol consumption (80 g per day in males and 60 g per day in females for at least 10 years), chronic infection with hepatitis C virus (HCV) (serum anti-HCV antibodies-positive) or hepatitis B virus (HBV) (serum hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg)-positive), or hereditary hemochromatosis (liver-iron overload and C282Y homozygosity);
(4) absence of previous complications of cirrhosis (particularly ascites, gastrointestinal hemorrhage or HCC);
(5) patients belonging to Child-Pugh class A or B and without a focal liver lesion at inclusion; and
(6) written informed consent.

Exclusion Criteria:  (1) patients belonging to Child-Pugh class C;
(2) severe uncontrolled extrahepatic disease resulting in estimated life expectancy of less than 1 year; and
(3) coinfection with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), even if controlled by an antiviral treatment.
Intervention:  1) US plus an AFP assay every 6 months (n = 326),
2) US every 3 months plus an AFP assay every 6 months (n = 328),
3) US every 6 months but no AFP assay (n = 312), and
4) US every 3 months but no AFP assay (n = 312).

After data analyses, high rates of serum AFP assays were actually observed in groups 3 and 4 (60.5% and 54.8%, respectively), which precluded reliable interpretation based on serum AFP assay randomization. Consequently, the steering committee decided to restrict the final analysis to US randomization only. Accordingly, the final analysis considered only US randomization as follows: US every 3 months (n = 640, Gr3M) or US every 6 months (n = 638, Gr6M).

Comparison:  see Intervention
Primary:  The prevalence of Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC)≤ 30 mm in diameter.

Secondary:  Focal-lesion incidence, survival.

Results:  Focal-lesion inicidence:
Focal-lesion incidence was not different between Gr3M and Gr6M groups (2-year estimates, 20.4% versus 13.2%, P = 0.067) but incidence of lesions ≤10 mm was increased (41% in Gr3M versus 28% in Gr6M, P = 0.002).
Hepatocellular Carcinoma:
HCC was diagnosed in 123 patients (9.6%) during the trial: 53 in Gr3M and 70 in Gr6M. The prevalence of HCC ≤ 30 mm in diameter was estimated at 79% (95% CI: 69- 90%) in Gr3M and 70% in Gr6M (95% CI: 59- 81%) (P = 0.30).
Three variables remained associated with the outcome: age, platelet count, and serum bilirubin. Adjusted HR, stratified according to the etiology of cirrhosis, in the Gr6M versus Gr3M groups, was estimated at 1.18 (95% CI: 0.82-1.72; P = 0.37).
Survival: 154 patients (12%) died during the trial: 72 (11.3%) in the Gr3M group and 82 (12.1%) in the Gr6M group. No evidence of difference in survival between the randomized groups was observed regarding 5-year estimated survival at 84.9% versus 85.8% for the Gr3M and Gr6M groups, respectively (P = 0.38).




Author's Conclusion:  In conclusion, US surveillance performed every 3 months in patients with cirrhosis, mainly caused by HCV or alcohol abuse, fails to improve the detection rate of HCCs ≤ 30 mm in diameter that are eligible for curative treatment, although it detects more focal lesions than US performed every 6 months. This negative result is probably linked to the limitations of the recommended diagnostic procedures for small focal lesions in current practice.
Methodical Notes

Funding Sources:  n.s.

COI:  n.s.

Randomization:  Simple cluster sampling was carried out. Every ‘factor’, ‘enterprise’, or ‘school’ was regarded as a unit. This ensured that all eligible members of the unit were allocated to the same group. These units were randomly
allocated to a screening (9,757) or no screening (control, 9,443) group.

Blinding:  n.a.

Dropout Rate/ITT-Analysis:  -

Notes:  
Unklar ob Population der Studie für Fragestellung geeignet (HBV and chron. Hepatitis).
Zhang, B. H. et al. Randomized controlled trial of screening for hepatocellular carcinoma. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol. 130. 417-22. 2004
Population Intervention - Comparison Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  2

Study type:  RCT

Number of Patient:  19.200 individuals of urban Shanghai (China), Screening group (n= 9,757) or no screening (control, n= 9,443) group. In the screening group, 384 subjects refused to participate to the program.

Recruitung Phase:  January 1993 to December 1995

Inclusion Criteria:  People aged 35 years to 59 years and with serum evidence of hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection or a history of chronic hepatitis )(and due to that have an increased risk for HCC).

Exclusion Criteria:  Individuals with a known history of HCC, or other malignant diseases, or serious illness.
Intervention:  Serum AFP test and a screening ultrasonography examination every 6 months. Screening-group participants who were found to have HCC were treated and transferred to follow-up programs. Individuals with negative screening tests were invited to repeat screening every
6 months.

Comparison:  Controls were identified but received no intervention, and continued to use health-care facilities as usual
Primary:  Mortality from HCC.

Secondary:  -

Results:  During study period: 153 HCCs, with 86 deaths from HCC among the 18,816 participants. Although the total incidence of HCC was virtually identical in two groups, the total mortality rate from HCC was lower in the screened group (83.2 per 100,000) than in the control group (131.5 per 100,000).
The rate ratio for mortality from HCC was 0.633 (95 percent confidence interval, 0.41–0.98). These results reveal a significant reduction in mortality at 5-year follow-up in the screened group compared to the control group.

Stage distribution:
Screening group (sg)(n= 86), Control group (cg) n= 67.
Stage I sg: 52(60.5%); cg: 0(0%)
Stage II sg: 12(13.9%); cg: 25(37.3%)
Stage III sg: 22(25.6%); cg: 42(62.7%)
Small HCC sg: 39(45.3%); cg: 0 .

There was a significant survival advantage for HCC patients in the screening group over those in the control group (P<0.01). Log-rank v2 =35.50, p<0.01. br=""> Subclinical cancers had the best prognosis, the 5-year survival reaching 67.8%, while this was only around 30%
for stage II cancers, and 0% 5-year survival for stage III cancers. The survival rates of stage II and stage III
cancers in the screened group and control were similar.


Staging:
stage I (subclinical stage or early stage) refers to HCC patients without obvious cancer symptoms and
signs;
stage II (moderate stage) refers to those between stage I and stage III, i.e., patients with symptoms or signs of HCC, such as palpatable mass in the abdomen;
stage III (late stage) refers to those HCC patients with obvious cachexia, jaundice, ascites or distant metastases.
small HCC: The diameter of a tumor less than 5 cm is empirically defined as small HCC.

Author's Conclusion:  In conclusion, biannual screening with combined AFP and ultrasound in individuals aged 35–59 years
reduced HCC mortality after 5-year follow-up. Our findings suggest that consideration should be given to a
program of screening using AFP and ultrasound to reduce HCC mortality in an increased risk population in
the developed areas of China.
Methodical Notes

HCC Diagnostik CEUS

Schlüsselfrage:

0_2022 Update HCC Diagnostik

Inhalt: 8 Literaturstellen
Literaturstelle Evidenzlevel Studientyp
Chen, X. 2022 2 Systematic review and META-Analysis of 10 diagnostic studies (with reference standard (blinding n.s.)
Fraquelli, M. 2022 1 Systematic review and META-Analysis of 23 diagnostic studies (with reference standard and blinding)
Kim, Y. Y. 2022 1 Systematic review and META-Analysis of 7 diagnostic studies (with reference standard (blinding n.s.)
Schellhaas, B. 2021 2 Prospective nation-wide multi-center trial (NCT03405909)
Schellhaas, B. 2021 2 Prospective multi-center real-life setting.
Strobel, D. 2021 2 Prospective diagnostic (multicenter real-life setting) study
van der Pol, C. B. 2022 1 Systematic review and IPD META-Analysis of 32 diagnostic studies (with reference standard (blinding n.s.)
Zhou, Y. 2022 1 Systematic review and META-Analysis of 43 diagnostic studies (with reference standard (blinding n.s.))


OXFORD (2011) - AMSTAR 2: Systematic Reviews: 5 Bewertung(en)
Chen, X. et al. The diagnostic performance of contrast-enhanced CT versus extracellular contrast agent-enhanced MRI in detecting hepatocellular carcinoma: direct comparison and a meta-analysis. Abdom Radiol (NY). 47. 2057-2070. 2022
Evidence level/Study Types P - I - C Outcomes/Results Literature References
Evidence level:  2

Overall confidence in the results of the review:  AMSTAR II critical appraisal tool for systematic reviews:
Two critical flaws (items 7 and 13), two non-critical flaws (items 10 and 12)
Overall quality of evidence: critically low

Oxford CEBM Levels of Evidence (2011):
Systematic review of diagnostic studies with reference standard). Downgraded one level due to "Critically low" quality of the AMSTAR appraisal (risk of bias analysis was performed, but the results not discussed or analyzed in regard towards the study results and excluded studies not listed).

Study type:  Systematic review and META-Analysis of 10 diagnostic studies (with reference standard (blinding n.s.)
Databases:  Pubmed/Medline, Embase, the Web of Science, and the Cochrane Library.

Search period:   up to 1/5/2021.

Inclusion Criteria:  (1) the diagnostic performance of ECA-MRI and contrast-enhanced CT in adult patients with chronic liver diseases for diagnosing HCC was investigated;
(2) the diagnose of HCC was established based on the histopathologic evidence and/or imaging follow-up period of at least 6 months;
(3) the paired data of the studies with head-to-head comparison of contrast-enhanced CT and ECA-MRI was suficient to construct 2 × 2 table of test performance; and
(4) the original articles can be retrieved from SCI journals.

Exclusion Criteria:  (1) the original articles did not assess the accuracy of contrast-enhanced CT and ECA-MRI;
(2) conference abstracts, case report, commentary, letter, review or meta-analysis and other special types of work were not considered;
(3) no head-to-head comparisons of contrast enhanced CT and ECA-MRI exists.
Population:  Adult patients with chronic liver diseases.

Intervention:  head-to-head comparison between ECA-MRI and contrast-enhanced CT.

Comparison:  Reference/Gold standard: Pathological evidence, Biopsy, Excision.
Primary:  The diagnostic performance of ECA-MRI and contrast-enhanced CT.

Secondary:  -

Results:  In total, 1333 subjects (73.7% male) with 1807 lesions were included. In addition to 4 (40%) retrospective studies, 6 (60%) studies were based on prospective design.

ECA-MRI displayed increased sensitivity to contrast-enhanced CT in detecting HCC (0.77 vs. 0.63, P<0.01). The difference in specificity between ECA-MRI and contrast-enhanced CT was not statistically significant (0.93 vs. 0.94, P=0.25).
ECA-MRI yielded higher diagnostic accuracy (sAUCs=0.88 vs. 0.80, P<0.01).

In the subgroup analysis with a lesion size<20 mm="" eca-mri="" allowed="" significant="" gains="" of="" accuracy="" compared="" to="" contrast-enhanced="" ct="" 0="" 79="" vs="" 0="" 72="" p="0.02)." eca-mri="" also="" outperformed="" contrast-enhanced="" ct="" in="" patients="" with="" lesion="" size="" 20="" mm="" saucs="0.96" vs="" 0="" 93="" p="0.04)." eca-mri="" provided="" higher="" sensitivity="" and="" accuracy="" than="" contrast-enhanced="" ct="" in="" detecting="" hcc="" especially="" lesions="" size="" 20="" mm="" br="">
Author's Conclusion:  All in all, the current study confirms ECA-MRI showed higher sensitivity but similar specificity with contrast enhanced CT in diagnosing HCC. ECA-MRI outperformed contrast-enhanced CT in per-lesion sensitivity in detecting small HCC (lesions size<2 cm="" td="">
- Di Martino M (2013) European Radiology.
- Golferi R (2009) Radiologia Medica.
- Hassan A (2011) Egyptian Journal of Radiology and Nuclear Medicine.
- Khalili K (2011) Journal of Hepatology.
- Basha MAA (2018) European Radiology.
- Min JH (2020) Clinical Gastroenterology and Hepatology.
- Ronot M (2018) Journal of Hepatology.
- Leoni S (2010) American Journal of Gastroenterology.
- Sangiovanni A (2010) Gut.
- Sersté T (2012) Hepatology,

Fraquelli, M. et al. Contrast-enhanced ultrasound for the diagnosis of hepatocellular carcinoma in adults with chronic liver disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 9. Cd013483. 2022
Evidence level/Study Types P - I - C Outcomes/Results Literature References
Evidence level:  1

Overall confidence in the results of the review:  AMSTAR II critical appraisal tool for systematic reviews:
No critical flaws, one non-critical flaws (items 12)
Overall quality of evidence: High



Study type:  Systematic review and META-Analysis of 23 diagnostic studies (with reference standard and blinding)
Databases:  Cochrane Library (2021, Issue 11), MEDLINE Ovid (1946 to 5 November 2021), Embase Ovid (1974 to 5 November 2021), LILACS (Bireme; 1982 to 5 November 2021), Science Citation Index – Expanded (1900 to 5 November 2021), and Conference Proceedings
Citation Index – Science (1990 to 5 November 2021). Trial registers, grey litertaure.

Search period:  start see databases- 5 th November 2021

Inclusion Criteria:  - men and women aged 18 years and older with chronic liver disease
- all publication languages
- cross-sectional study design
- all participants should have undergone one of the acceptable reference standards

Exclusion Criteria:  - People with previous diagnosis and treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma make up a distinct group and were excluded here.
- We excluded studies of case-control design that compared people with known hepatocellular carcinoma to matched controls
Population:  Adults with chronic liver disease, irrespective of aetiology, severity of disease,
and duration of illness, with suspicion of having hepatocellular carcinoma The review focused on diagnostic questions related to people with a first diagnosis of hepatocellular carcinoma.

Intervention:  Contrast-enhanced ultrasound (CEUS)

Comparison:  Reference Standard:
- pathology of the explanted liver, and
- histology of resected or biopsied focal liver lesion with at least a six-month follow-up.
Primary:  To assess the diagnostic accuracy of contrast-enhanced ultrasound (CEUS) for the diagnosis of hepatocellular carcinoma of any size and at any stage in adults with chronic liver disease, in a surveillance programme or in a clinical setting.

Secondary:  To assess the diagnostic accuracy of CEUS for the diagnosis of resectable hepatocellular carcinoma in people with chronic liver disease and identify potential sources of heterogeneity in the results.

Results:  23 studies, 6546 participants.

CEUS for hepatocellular carcinoma of any size and stage:
- sensitivity 77.8% (95% CI 69.4% to 84.4%) and
- specificity 93.8% (95% CI 89.1% to 96.6%)
(23 studies, 6546 participants; very low-certainty evidence).

Reference standard:
- typical characteristics on cross-sectional multiphasic contrast CT or MRI with a follow-up period of ≥ 6 months, to allow the confirmation of an initial negative result of CT or MRI;
- the pathology of the explanted liver in case of transplantation;
- the histology of resected focal liver lesion(s), or the histology of biopsied focal liver lesion(s) with a follow-up period of ≥ 6 months to exclude the presence of focal lesions
not detected by the index test.

CEUS for resectable hepatocellular carcinoma:
- sensitivity 77.5% (95% CI 62.9% to 87.6%) and
- specificity 92.7% (95% CI 86.8% to 96.1%)
(13 studies, 1257 participants; low-certainty evidence).

Reference standard:
- typical characteristics on cross-sectional multiphasic contrast CT or MRI with a follow-up period of ≥ 6 months, to allow the confirmation of an initial negative result of CT or MRI;
- the pathology of the explanted liver in case of transplantation;
- the histology of resected focal liver lesion(s), or the histology of biopsied focal liver lesion(s) with a follow-up period of ≥ 6 months to exclude the presence of focal lesions
not detected by the index test.

The observed heterogeneity in the results remains unexplained. The sensitivity analyses, including only studies with clearly prespecified positivity criteria and only studies in which the reference standard results were interpreted with no knowledge of the results about the index test, showed no differences in the results.


Author's Conclusion:  We found that by using CEUS, as an add-on test following abdominal ultrasound, to diagnose hepatocellular carcinoma of any size and stage, 22% of people with hepatocellular carcinoma would be missed, and 6% of people without hepatocellular carcinoma would unnecessarily undergo further testing or inappropriate treatment. As to resectable hepatocellular carcinoma, we found that 23% of people with resectable hepatocellular carcinoma would incorrectly be unresected, while 8% of people without hepatocellular carcinoma would undergo further inappropriate testing or treatment. The uncertainty resulting from the high risk of bias of the included studies, heterogeneity, and imprecision of the results and concerns on their applicability limit our ability to draw confident conclusions.
- de Sio 2014;
- Di Carlo 2012;
- Ding 2021;
- Forner 2008;
- Fracanzani 2001;
- Giorgio 2007;
- Giorgio 2010;
- Huang 2020a;
- Hwang 2021;
- Kan 2010;
- Kang 2020;
- Kudo 2019;
- Li 2019;
- Sangiovanni 2010;
- Schellhaas 2017;
- Shin 2015;
- Sporea 2019;
- Strobel 2021;
- Sugimoto 2020;
- Tan 2020;
- Terzi 2018;
- Wang 2006;
- Zuo 2021;
- Di Carlo 2012 (Abstract only);
- Giorgio 2010 (Abstract only).

Kim, Y. Y. et al. Diagnostic performance of CT versus MRI Liver Imaging Reporting and Data System category 5 for hepatocellular carcinoma: a systematic review and meta-analysis of comparative studies. Eur Radiol. 32. 6723-6729. 2022
Evidence level/Study Types P - I - C Outcomes/Results Literature References
Evidence level:  1

Overall confidence in the results of the review:  Overall confidence in the results of the review:
AMSTAR II critical appraisal tool for systematic reviews:
One critical flaw (items 13), two non-critical flaws (items 10 and 12)
Overall quality of evidence: LOW
(Risk of bias analysis was performed, but the results not discussed or analyzed in regard towards the study results).

Study type:  Systematic review and META-Analysis of 7 diagnostic studies (with reference standard (blinding n.s.)
Databases:  MEDLINE and EMBASE

Search period:  Inception to April 21, 2021

Inclusion Criteria:  - comparative studies that directly compared the diagnostic performance of CT and MRI using the LI-RADS.
- English-language publications

Exclusion Criteria:  Reviews, case reports, letters, commentaries, errata, meta-analyses, and studies published only as conference abstracts.
Population:  Patients at high risk for developing HCC as defined by LI-RADS.

Intervention:  Minimum technical parameters of index tests (CT or MRI) recommended by LI-RADS



Comparison:  Reference test: pathology or composite clinical reference standard
Primary:  Performance of LR-5 for diagnosing HCC (including true-positive, false-positive, true-negative, and false-negative values with both modalities)

Secondary:  -

Results:  A total of 1145 observations with 725 cases of HCC were included in the final analysis.

The pooled per-observation sensitivity of LR-5 for diagnosing HCC was higher using MRI (61%; 95% confidence interval [CI], 43–76%; I2 = 95%) than CT (48%; 95% CI, 31–65%; I2 = 97%) (p < 0.001). The pooled per-observation specificities of LR-5 did not show statistically significant difference between CT (96%; 95% CI, 92–98%; I2 = 0%) and MRI (93%; 95% CI, 88–96%; I2 = 16%) (p = 0.054).
In the subgroup analysis, extracellular contrast agent–enhanced MRI showed significantly higher pooled per-observation sensitivity than gadoxetic acid–enhanced MRI for diagnosing HCC (73% [95% CI, 55–85%] vs. 55% [95% CI, 39–70%]; p = 0.007),
without a significant difference in specificity (93% [95% CI, 80–98%] vs. 94% [95% CI, 87–97%]; p = 0.884).

Author's Conclusion:  In conclusion, the LR-5 of MRI showed significantly higher pooled per-observation sensitivity than CT for diagnosing HCC. The pooled per-observation specificities of LR-5 were comparable between the two modalities.
- Min JH (2020) Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol.
- Chen N (2016) Magn Reson Med Sci.
- Kim BR (2017) Radiology.
- Basha MAA (2018) Eur Radiol.
- An C (2019) Korean J Radiol.
- Nakao S (2019) Jpn J Radiol.
- Yoon JH (2019) J Magn Reson Imaging.

van der Pol, C. B. et al. CT/MRI and CEUS LI-RADS Major Features Association with Hepatocellular Carcinoma: Individual Patient Data Meta-Analysis. Radiology. 302. 326-335. 2022
Evidence level/Study Types P - I - C Outcomes/Results Literature References
Evidence level:  1

Overall confidence in the results of the review:  AMSTAR II critical appraisal tool for systematic reviews:
No critical flaws, three non-critical flaws (items 5, 10 and 14)
Overall quality of evidence: Moderate


Regarding 6: "All authors agreeing to participate were sent a formal confidentiality agreement explaining that data would be stored securely and only accessed by authorized coinvestigators with a copy of the data contribution form, data extraction sheet, data dictionary, and a list of frequently asked questions." Thereby, data extraction was not performed by review authors?!

Study type:  Systematic review and IPD META-Analysis of 32 diagnostic studies (with reference standard (blinding n.s.)
Databases:  MEDLINE, Embase, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, and Scopus databases.

Search period:  January 2014 to September 2019

Inclusion Criteria:  No language or publication type restrictions;
All CT, MRI, and CEUS studies reporting the percentage of HCC and overall malignancy for LI-RADS categories 1–5, tumor in vein, and malignancy in patients at high risk of HCC (hepatic cirrhosis, chronic hepatitis B viral infection, current or prior HCC);
all liver observations were required to have been categorized using CT/MRI LI-RADS version 2014, 2017, or 2018 or CEUS LI-RADS version 2016 or 2017;

Exclusion Criteria:  n.s.
Population:  Patients at high risk of HCC (hepatic cirrhosis, chronic hepatitis B viral infection, current or prior HCC).

Intervention:  Multiphasic Contrast-Enhanced CT or MRI version 2014, 2017 or 2018; CEUS version 2016 or 2017.

Comparison:  Reference standard: Pathology or CCRS (composite reference standard)
Primary:  diagnostic accuracy of CT, MRI, or CEUS for HCC using LI-RADS; The percentage of HCC and overall malignancy for each LI-RADS category on CT, MRI and CEUS including 1–5, TIV and M.

Secondary:  -

Results:  CT/MRI: A total of 1170 observations obtained with CT in 812 patients from six studies and 3341 observations obtained with MRI in 2639 patients from 17 studies had sufficient data to be incorporated into the model.

CEUS: A total of 853 observations were imaged using CEUS in 833 patients from six studies, and assessments of all major features were available.

At multivariable analysis of CT/MRI LI-RADS, all major features were associated with HCC, except threshold growth (OR, 1.6; 95% CI: 0.7, 3.6; P = .07).
Nonperipheral washout (OR, 13.2; 95% CI: 9.0, 19.2; P = .01) and nonrim arterial phase hyperenhancement (APHE) (OR, 10.3; 95% CI: 6.7, 15.6; P = .01) had stronger associations with HCC than enhancing capsule (OR, 2.4; 95% CI: 1.7, 3.5; P = .03).
On CEUS images, APHE (OR, 7.3; 95% CI: 4.6, 11.5; P = .01), late and mild washout (OR, 4.1; 95% CI: 2.6, 6.6; P = .01), and size of at least 20 mm (OR, 1.6; 95% CI: 1.04, 2.5; P = .04) were associated with HCC.

Author's Conclusion:  In conclusion, the CT/MRI and contrast-enhanced US (CEUS) Liver Imaging Reporting and Data System (LI-RADS) major features have different independent associations with hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Arterial phase hyperenhancement and washout pattern have strong independent associations with HCC using CT/MRI and CEUS LI-RADS. Threshold
growth was infrequently reported and was not a significant independent predictor of HCC. The utility of ancillary features, which were not included in our study, would benefit from more comprehensive reporting in future research.
see publication

Zhou, Y. et al. Risk Stratification and Distribution of Hepatocellular Carcinomas in CEUS and CT/MRI LI-RADS: A Meta-Analysis. Front Oncol. 12. 873913. 2022
Evidence level/Study Types P - I - C Outcomes/Results Literature References
Evidence level:  1

Overall confidence in the results of the review:  AMSTAR II critical appraisal tool for systematic reviews:
One critical flaw (item 13), two non-critical flaws (items 10 and 12)
Overall quality of evidence: Low
(Risk of bias analysis was performed, but the results not discussed or analyzed in regard towards the study results.)

Notes:
15. publication bias: there is only limited evidence that publication or reporting bias is a major issue for primary diagnostic test accuracy studies. No appropriate test with adequate statistical power to reliably assess publication bias in the context of diagnostic test accuracy systematic reviews. The authors argue, that this is the reason, why they didn't evaluate for publication bias.



Study type:  Systematic review and META-Analysis of 43 diagnostic studies (with reference standard (blinding n.s.))
Databases:  PubMed, Embase, and Cochrane Central databases.

Search period:  January 2014 to December 2021

Inclusion Criteria:  (1) patients with high risk for HCC;
(2) the observations undergoing contrast-enhanced CT/MRI examination categorized according to CT/MRI LI-RADS V2014, V2017, or V2018, or the observations undergoing CEUS classified according to CEUS LI-RADS V2016 or V2017;
(3) the contrast agent for CEUS being SonoVue; and
(4) pathology or composite clinical reference standard (CCRS, multiple imaging or imaging follow-up) used as the reference standard

Exclusion Criteria:  (1) studies applied to patients without high risk for HCCs,
(2) studies including duplicated data,
(3) studies only including HCCs or HCCs and non-HCC malignancies, and
(4) studies without sufficient data for inclusion in the pooled analysis.
Population:  Patients with high risk for HCC

Intervention:  Contrast-enhanced CT/MRI examination categorized according to CT/MRI LI-RADS V2014, V2017, or V2018, or the observations undergoing CEUS classified according to CEUS LI-RADS V2016 or V2017.

Comparison:  Reference standard: pathology or composite clinical reference standard (CCRS, multiple imaging or imaging follow-up).
Primary:  The proportion of HCC within each LI-RADS category detected using CEUS, and the diagnostic performance of each LI-RADS category for the diagnosis of HCC.

Secondary:  -

Results:  There were 15 studies on CEUS LI-RADS involving 6,573 patients with 7,234 lesions, including 5,387 HCCs, 624 non-HCC malignancies, and 1,223 benign lesions.
There were 30 studies on CT/MRI LI-RADS involving 5,274 patients with 6,522 lesions, including 4,554 HCCs, 481 non-HCC malignancies, and 1,487 benign lesions.

The proportion of HCCs in CEUS LR-5 was 96%, and that in CECT/MRI LR-5 was 95% (p > 0.05). The proportion of non-HCC malignancy in CEUS LR-M was lower than that of CT/MRI LR-M (35% vs. 58%, p = 0.01).

Diagnostic performance of CEUS and CT/MRI LR-5 for HCCs.
LR-5: Sensitivity (95% CI), CEUS: 73% (67–78); I2,%: 87
Sensitivity (95% CI), CT/MRI: 69% (64–74), I2,%: 92, p= 0.32.
Specificity(95% CI), CEUS: 92% (86–95), I2,%: 75
Specificity(95% CI), CT/MRI: 92% (88–94); I2,%: 86, p= 0.96.
Accuracy(95% CI), CEUS: 78% (71–84); I2,%: 90
Accuracy(95% CI), CT/MRI: 76% (72–79); I2,%: 93, p= 0.54.
DOR (95% CI), CEUS: 28.0 (14.2–55.3); I2,%: 79
DOR (95% CI), CT/MRI: 23.9 (15.8–36.3); I2,%: 87.3, p= 0.70.
AUC CEUS: 0.74; CT/MRI: 0.75.

Diagnostic performance of CEUS and CT/MRI LR-5 for non-HCC malignancies.
LR-5: Sensitivity (95% CI), CEUS: 83% (73–90); I2,%: 53
Sensitivity (95% CI), CT/MRI: 65% (56–73), I2,%: 78, p= 0.01.
Specificity(95% CI), CEUS: 92% (86–95), I2,%: 75
Specificity(95% CI), CT/MRI: 92% (88–94); I2,%: 86, p= 0.96.
Accuracy(95% CI), CEUS: 78% (70–84); I2,%: 90
Accuracy(95% CI), CT/MRI: 76% (72–79); I2,%: 93, p= 0.54.
DOR (95% CI), CEUS: 36.5 (16.6–80.0); I2,%: 96
DOR (95% CI), CT/MRI: 46.6 (24.9–88.2); I2,%: 86 p= 0.64.
AUC CEUS: 0.87; CT/MRI: 0.73.

Author's Conclusion:  In conclusion, the proportions of HCCs increase with the upshift of LI-RADS categories from LR-1 to LR-5. CEUS LR-3 has a lower proportion of HCCs than CT/MRI LR-3, while CEUS LR-M has a higher proportion of HCCs. CEUS LR-M has a lower proportion of non-HCC malignancies than CT/MRI LR-M. CEUS LR-5 and CT/ MRI LR-5 show comparable diagnostic performances of HCC, while CEUS LR-M has a higher sensitivity of non-HCC malignancies compared with CT/MRI LR-M.

CEUS LR-3 has a lower proportion of HCCs than CT/MRI LRM, while CEUS LR-M has a higher proportion of HCCs.
Most of HCCs are in CEUS LR-5, LR-M, and LR-4, while most of HCCs are in CT/MRI LR-5 and LR-4.
CEUS LR-M has a lower proportion of non-HCC malignancies but a higher proportion of HCCs compared with CT/MRI LR-M.
see publication

OXFORD (2011) QUADAS-2: Diagnostic Accuracy Studies: 3 Bewertung(en)
Schellhaas, B. et al. Contrast-Enhanced Ultrasound Algorithms (CEUS-LIRADS/ESCULAP) for the Noninvasive Diagnosis of Hepatocellular Carcinoma - A Prospective Multicenter DEGUM Study. Ultraschall Med. 42. 178-186. 2021
Evidence level/Study Types Population Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  2

Study type:  Prospective nation-wide multi-center trial (NCT03405909)
Number of patients / samples:  321 high risk patients

Inclusion criteria:  - patients with known risk for HCC based on the national guideline and presence of a focal liver lesion;
- B-mode ultrasound and CEUS;
- Histology available

Exclusion criteria:  - Pretreated lesions,
- systemic treatment for HCC
- contraindications for CEUS
- age <18 years="" br="">

Patient population:  In high-risk HCC patients.

Index test:  Diagnostic accuracy of the recently developed CEUS algorithms (ESCULAP). Direct comparison to the “conventional” interpretation of standardized CEUS at the time of the examination.

Reference test:  Histological findings were collected from biopsy or surgery. Blinding:  n.s.
Key outcomes:  diagnostic accuracy of standardized contract-enhanced ultrasound (CEUS) for the noninvasive diagnosis of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC);
All lesions had to be categorized according to the two CEUS algorithms ESCULAP (Erlanger Synopsis for ContrastEnhanced Ultrasound for Liver Lesion Assessment in Patients at risk) and CEUS LI-RADS (Contrast-Enhanced UltraSound Liver Imaging Reporting and Data System).

Results:  299 (93.1 %) had liver cirrhosis.

The diagnosis according to histology was HCC in 256 cases, and intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma (iCCA) in 23 cases. In the subgroup of cirrhotic patients (n = 299), the highest sensitivity for the diagnosis of HCC was achieved with the CEUS algorithm ESCULAP (94.2 %) and CEUS on-site (90.9 %). The lowest sensitivity was reached with the CEUS LI-RADS algorithm (64 %; p < 0.001).
However, the specificity of CEUS LI-RADS (78.9 %) was superior to that of ESCULAP (50.9 %) and CEUS on-site (64.9 %; p < 0.001). At the same time, the negative predictive value (NPV) of CEUS LI-RADS was significantly inferior to that of ESCULAP (34.1 % vs. 67.4 %; p < 0.001) and CEUS on-site (62.7 %; p < 0.001). The positive predictive values of all modalities were high (around 90 %), with the best results seen for CEUS LI-RADS and CEUS on-site.
Methodical Notes
Notes:  Result of QUADAS-2 Checklist:
Overall: low (unclear/low/unclear/low/low/low/low)

Schellhaas, B. et al. Contrast-Enhanced Ultrasound Patterns for the Non-invasive Diagnosis of Hepatocellular Carcinoma: A Prospective Multicenter Study in Histologically Proven Liver Lesions in a Real-Life Setting Demonstrating the Benefit of Extended Late Phase Observation. Ultrasound Med Biol. 47. 3170-3180. 2021
Evidence level/Study Types Population Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  2

Study type:  Prospective multi-center real-life setting.
Number of patients / samples:  395 patients with available histology

Inclusion criteria:  Patients at high risk for HCC according to national HCC guidelines with a solid liver lesion visible on B-mode ultrasound
- histology available
- CEUS diagnosis

Exclusion criteria:  - systemic treatment for HCC
- contraindications for CEUS
- no informed consent
- age < 18 years

Patient population:  Patients at high risk for HCC according to national HCC guidelines with a solid liver lesion visible on B-mode ultrasound.

Index test:  CEUS (categorization of the index lesion according to the standardized CEUS algorithms ESCULAP and CEUS LI-RADS)

Reference test:  Histology Blinding:  Patients provide their written consent for prospective evaluation of anonymized data.
Key outcomes:  Validate the findings of the typical HCC pattern (APHE followed by late-onset, mild washout); Sensitivities, specificities and positive and negative predictive values were calculated.

Results:  In total, 395 patients (male/female = 329/66, mean age: 67 y, range: 2988 y) at high risk of HCC with histology-proven lesions were analyzed.
Tumor diagnoses based on histology were
- hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), n= 316 (median size: 40 mm);
- intrahepatic cholangiocellular carcinoma (iCCA), n = 26 (median size: 47.5 mm); and
- other malignancy, n = 19.

Overall, 85.8% of HCCs exhibited APHE.
APHE followed by washout occurred in 72.8% of HCCs and 50% of iCCAs and non-HCC, non-iCCA malignancies (p <0.05). Early and marked washout was associated more commonly with iCCA; HCCs exhibited mostly late and mild washout (onset >46 min in 10% of cases).

The positive predictive value were almost equal for the hyperhypo and the hyperiso patterns for the noninvasive diagnosis of HCC (86.8% vs. 85.4%).
Methodical Notes
Notes:  Subanalysis of DEGUM study from Shellhaas et al study.

Result of QUADAS-2 Checklist:
Overall: low (unclear/low/unclear/low/low/low/low)

Strobel, D. et al. Real-life assessment of standardized contrast-enhanced ultrasound (CEUS) and CEUS algorithms (CEUS LI-RADS®/ESCULAP) in hepatic nodules in cirrhotic patients-a prospective multicenter study. Eur Radiol. 31. 7614-7625. 2021
Evidence level/Study Types Population Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  2

Study type:  Prospective diagnostic (multicenter real-life setting) study
Number of patients / samples:  395 patients.

Inclusion criteria:  - age ≥ 18 years, the presence of a FLL visible on conventional B-mode ultrasound,
- the availability of a reference standard.

Exclusion criteria:  - age < 18 years,
- systemic or local treatment for HCC, and
- contraindications for CEUS (such as known allergy or hemodynamic instability).

Patient population:  Cirrhotic patients

Index test:  Standardized CEUS algorithms; conventional liver ultrasound, followed by immediate CEUS.

Reference test:  Histology was regarded as the gold standard; in cases with no available histological findings, MRI or CT was used as reference. In cases with both MRI and CT available (n = 23), MRI was used as the reference. There were no inconsistencies in the diagnosis between MRI and CT in these patients. Blinding:  n.s.
Key outcomes:  Diagnostic accuracy based on subjective interpretation by an experienced examiner, the definition according to current guidelines (“arterial phase hyperenhancement followed by hypoenhancement”), and the recently developed CEUS algorithms ESCULAP and CEUS LI-RADS.

Results:  The final diagnosis was 378 HCCs and 92 non-HCC lesions (benign, n = 49; malignant, n = 43) based on the reference (n =470). Histological findings were available in 364 patients
(77.4%). MRI and CT served as reference standard in 77 (16.4%) and 29 (6.2%) cases, respectively.

Modality
CEUS on-site (subjective) N (HCC): 378; N (Non-HCC): 92; Sensitivity: 91.5% [88.7%; 94.3%]; Specificity: 67.4% [57.8%; 77%]; PPV*: 92% [89.3%; 94.8%]; NPV*: 66% [56.4%; 75.5%].

CEUS guidelines (hyper-hypo) N (HCC): 378; N (Non-HCC): 92; Sensitivity: 74.3% [69.9%; 78.7%]; Specificity: 63% [53.2%; 72.9%]; PPV*: 89.2% [85.8%; 92.6%]; NPV*: 37.4% [29.8%; 45%].

ESCULAP N (HCC): 279; N (Non-HCC): 70; Sensitivity: 95% [92.4%; 97.5%]; Specificity: 51.4% [39.7%; 63.1%]; PPV*: 88.6% [85%; 92.2%]; NPV*: 72% [59.6%; 84.4%].

CEUS LI-RADS© N (HCC): 279; N (Non-HCC): 70; Sensitivity: 65.2% [59.6%; 70.8%]; Specificity 78.6% [69%; 88.2%]; PPV*: 92.4% [88.7%; 96.1%]; NPV*: 36.2% [28.5%; 43.8%].
*Relating to a prevalence of 80%
Methodical Notes
Notes:  Trial NCT03405909, see also two studies from Schellhaas B et al 2022.

Result of QUADAS-2 Checklist:
Overall: low (unclear/low/unclear/low/low/low/high)

HCC Bildgebende Diagnostik

Schlüsselfrage:

Welche Untersuchungsmethoden sollen bei Patienten mit Verdacht auf ein hepatozelluläres Karzinom zur Sicherung auf Diagnose angewendet werden?

Inhalt: 17 Literaturstellen
Literaturstelle Evidenzlevel Studientyp
Bolondi, L. 2005 3 Prospective diagnostic study, Italy.
Burrel, M. 2003 2 Prospective diagnostic study.
de Sio, I. 2014 3 Retrospective diagnostic study, Italy.
Di Martino, M. 2013 2 Prospective diagnostic study.
Forner, A. 2015 3 Prospective diagnostic study.
Furlan, A. 2012 4 Retrospective diagnostic study.
Granito, A. 2013 3 Prospective diagnostic study
Haradome, H. 2011 3 Retrospective diagnostic study.
Inoue, T. 2012 3 Retrospective diagnostic study.
Khalili, K. 2011 4 Retrospective diagnostic study.
Liu, G. J. 2015 4 Retrospective diagnostic study, China
Manini, M. A. 2014 4 Prospective diagnostic study. Italy.
Mueller, C. 2018 4 Retrospective diagnostic study.
Sun, H. Y. 2010 4 Retrospective diagnostic study.
Tsurusaki, M. 2016 2 prospective diagnostic study
Wildner, D. 2015 4 Retrospective diagnostic study.
Wildner, D. 2014 4 Prospective diagnostic study.


OXFORD (2011) Appraisal Sheet: Diagnostic Studies: 17 Bewertung(en)
Bolondi, L. et al. Characterization of small nodules in cirrhosis by assessment of vascularity: the problem of hypovascular hepatocellular carcinoma. Hepatology. 42. 27-34. 2005
Evidence level/Study Types Population Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  3

Study type:  Prospective diagnostic study, Italy.
Number of patients / samples:  Population: 72 nodules in 59 patients. Recruitment: 2002-2004. Inclusion: All patients in Child-Turcotte-Pugh class A or B19 with a definite diagnosis of
cirrhosis who were undergoing the surveillance program at 6-month intervals in our liver unit or who were referred from other institutions, as well as patients submitted to periodic controls after curative treatment for HCC, who had one to three distinct new nodules with a maximum diameter between 1 and 3 cm detected by conventional US examination were consecutively enrolled.
Exclusion: (1) presence of four or more nodules, (2) a nodule exceeding 3 cm in diameter, (3) local recurrence at the same site as previously treated HCC, (4) thrombosis in the main portal branches, (5) extrahepatic metastases, or (6) previous diagnosis of HCC submitted to noncurative treatment

Reference standard:  "Impact of arterial hypervascularity, as established by the (EASL) recommendations, as a criterion for characterizing small (1-3 cm) nodules in cirrhosis." Comparison of perfusional ultrasonography and helical computed tomography.
Gold standard ultrasound-guided biopsy was performed when one or both techniques (perfusional ultrasonography, helical computed tomography) showed negative results.

Validation:  perfusional ultrasonography and helical computed tomography were performed. In case both lead to a finding of arterial vascularization a definite diagnosis of HCC was established according EASL criteria. If one or both methods had negative results, a US-guided biopsy was performed.
Sensitivity, Specificity, Positive Predictive Value, Negative Predictive Value not investigated.

Blinding:  "In each case, a diagnosis of hypervascularity was made by a consensus read by the physician performing the study and two blinded and independent readers when the nodule became hyperechoic during the early arterial phase and it was distinctly detected before enhancement of the surrounding liver parenchyma."

Inclusion of clinical information:  No.

Dealing with ambiguous clinical findings:  -
Results:  Coincidental hypervascularity was found in 44 of 72 nodules (61%);44% of 1-2-cm nodules and 84% of 2-3-cm nodules).
14 nodules (19.4%) had negative results with both techniques (hypovascular nodules). Biopsy showed HCC in 5 hypovascular nodules and in 11 of 14 nodules with hypervascularity using only one technique. All nodules larger than
2 cmfinally resulted to be HCC.
Not satisfying the EASL imaging criteria for diagnosis were 38% of HCCs 1 to 2 cm (17% hypovascular) and 16% of those 2 to 3 cm (none hypovascular).


Author conclusions:  "The noninvasive EASL criteria for diagnosis of HCC are satisfied in only 61% of small nodules in cirrhosis; thus, biopsy frequently is required in this setting. Relying on imaging techniques in nodules of 1 to 2 cmwould miss the diagnosis of HCC in up to 38% of cases.."
Methodical Notes
Funding Sources:  not described

COI:  none declared.

Notes:  Evidence level 3: Prospective studies without consistently applied reference standard or Prospective studies without blinding or Retrospective studies (non-consecutive studies) with reference standard and blinding
Notes:Gold standard was not applied to all participants
"Non-consecutive studies, or studies without consistently applied reference standards"

Burrel, M. et al. MRI angiography is superior to helical CT for detection of HCC prior to liver transplantation: an explant correlation. Hepatology. 38. 1034-42. 2003
Evidence level/Study Types Population Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  2

Study type:  Prospective diagnostic study.
Number of patients / samples:  Fifty cirrhotic patients waiting for cadaveric LT (48) or LDLT applying expanded criteria (2).
MRA and pathological examinations were conducted in all 50 patients. Helical CT was performed in 26 of 29 HCC patients.

Reference standard:  Pathologic examination was considered the gold standard.

Validation:  Accuracy of MRA and Triphasic Helical CT on a Per-Nodule Basis for Characterization of HCC Disease
Extension in 29 Patients With Known HCC:
Sensitivity MRA (%) 58/76 (76), Helical-CT (%) 43/70 (61)
Specificity MRA (%) 18/24 (75), Helical-CT (%) 12/18 (66)
Positive predictive value MRA (%) 58/64 (90), Helical-CT (%) 43/49 (87)
False-positive results MRA (%) 6/64 (10), Helical-CT (%) 6/49 (13)
Negative predictive value MRA (%) 18/36 (50), Helical-CT (%) 12/39 (30)
LR for a positive result$ MRA (%) 3.04, Helical-CT (%) 1.79

Blinding:  The observers were unaware of the results of the pathologic examination.

Inclusion of clinical information:  

Dealing with ambiguous clinical findings:  
Results:  Sensitivity:
Overall detection of HCC was significantly better with MRA than CT (58/76 vs. 43/70, respectively, P = .OOl), particularly for HCC of 10 to 20 mm (24/27 vs. 15/25, respectively, P = .03). There were no significant differences in detection of nodules >20 mm or <10 mm="" overall="" there="" was="" agreement="" between="" both="" techniques="" k="" statistic="0.64," p=".OOl).
Accuracy: The likelihood ratio for a positive result by MRA was better than for helical CT (3.04 vs. 1.79, respectively).
HCC Staging and Treatment Decisions.
MRA established an accurate staging in 59% of the cases, underestimation in 3 1%, and overestimation in lo%, without differences with helical CT.

Author conclusions:  Our data provide the rationale to propose 3-D MRA as the best radiologic technology for HCC staging. This
technology detects all nodules above 20 mm in size and a high proportion of nodules between 10 and 20 mm and is significantly better than triphasic helical CT. However, its deficiency lies in the inability to detect HCC nodules of less than 1 cm in size. New advancements in radiology, such as double-contrast MRI or multidetector row CT scan, may allow to increase the current 32% detection rate of these nodules, but, as stated before, this will have to be tested again using explant livers as the gold standard.
Methodical Notes
Funding Sources:  Supported by a contract from Programa “Ramon y Cajal”(IDIBAPS, Ministerio de Ciencia y Tecnologia to J.M.L.) and supported in part by a grant of Instituto de Salud Carlos III (C03/02).

COI:  

Notes:  Evidence level 2: Individual prospective studies with consistently applied reference standard and blinding.

de Sio, I. et al. Optimized contrast-enhanced ultrasonography for characterization of focal liver lesions in cirrhosis: A single-center retrospective study. United European Gastroenterol J. 2. 279-87. 2014
Evidence level/Study Types Population Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  3

Study type:  Retrospective diagnostic study, Italy.
Number of patients / samples:  We enrolled a total of 282 patients (197 M, 85 F; mean age, 67±7 years; range, 28–79 years) with a ‘de novo’ diagnosis of single (n=165; 58%) and multiple (n=117) focal liver lesions (FLLs). The underlying etiology of cirrhosis was: hepatitis C (n=220; 78%), hepatitis B (n=31; 11%), alcoholic cirrhosis (n=11; 4%), alcoholic plus hepatitis C (n=7; 2.5%), hepatitis C plus hepatitis B (n=10; 3.5%), cryptogenetic cirrhosis (n=2) and primary biliary cirrhosis (n=1).

Reference standard:  For all leasions a confirmation of diagnosis was obtained by US-guided percutaneous biopsy.

Validation:  CEUS capability of discriminating between HCC and non-HCC malignancies in cirrhotic patients.

Blinding:  Yes. "The imaging review was performed by three operators, with at least 5 years’ experience in liver CEUS, all blinded to the patients’ clinical histories
and final histopathological diagnoses."

Inclusion of clinical information:  Yes.

Dealing with ambiguous clinical findings:  -
Results:  Histological diagnosis of FLLs: 34 benign lesions (i.e. 25 regenerative nodules and 9 dysplastic nodules) and 248 malignant lesions (223 well-to-moderately differentiated HCCs; 7 poorly-differentiated HCCs; 5 intrahepatic
colangiocellular carcinomas (ICCs); 5 primary non-Hodgkin B-cell lymphomas (NHBLs); and 8 metastatic liver tumors).
A time to wash-out>55 s identified patients with HCC with the highest level of accuracy (92.7%). Similarly, a time to washout ≥55 s correctly identified the vast majority of the non-HCC malignancies (100% sensitivity, 98.2% specificity and diagnostic accuracy of 98.3%).

Author conclusions:  "CEUS is an accurate and safe procedure for discriminating FLLs in cirrhotic patients, especially when a cut-off time to wash-out of 55 s is chosen as a reference value."
Methodical Notes
Funding Sources:  "This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors."

COI:  "The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest."

Notes:  Evidence level 3: Prospective studies without consistently applied reference standard or Prospective studies without blinding or Retrospective studies (non-consecutive studies) with reference standard and blinding.

Di Martino, M. et al. Hepatocellular carcinoma in cirrhotic patients: prospective comparison of US, CT and MR imaging. Eur Radiol. 23. 887-96. 2013
Evidence level/Study Types Population Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  2

Study type:  Prospective diagnostic study.
Number of patients / samples:  250 Inclusion:consective with chronic liver disease patients between 2007 and July 2010 were evaluated regarding liver transplantation with available imaging data (US, MDCT and MRI) within 1 month and had histologically proven cirrhosis at liver biopsy. Exclusion: Younger than 18 years of age, pregnant or lactating females, were contraindicated for MRI

Reference standard:  Aim: Prospective Comparison of the diagnostic performance of state-of-the-art US, MDCT and contrast-enhanced MRI in a population of cirrhotic patients who were candidates for liver transplantation.
Reference standard: "A composite reference standard was used to diagnose or rule out HCC. A diagnosis of HCC required one or more of the following criteria: histological confirmation (liver biopsy, resection and transplantation) or demonstration of substantial growth at a minimum imaging follow-up of 12 months, defined as an increase in the longest lesion diameter of >5 mm at either CT or MRI."

Validation:  Four different image datasets were evaluated: (1) US, (2) MDCT, (3) MRI unenhanced + enhanced dynamic phase, (4) MRI unenhanced + enhanced dynamic phase + enhanced
hepatobiliary phase.

Blinding:  Partial blinding. "Readers were aware of the imaging phase and that all patients had cirrhosis, but they were unaware of the results of other imaging exams, and AFP levels and were blinded to all other patient radiological and clinical information."

Inclusion of clinical information:  see blinding section.

Dealing with ambiguous clinical findings:  -
Results:  Population: Out of 250 60 were not considered suitable for liver transplant surgery and were excluded (history of previous neoplasia, n=6; severe cardiopulmonary disease, n=20; end-stage liver disease, n=5; diffuse metastatic
disease, n016; active drug/alcohol abuse, n=13).
A total of 254 confirmed lesions comprising 163 diagnosed HCC nodules and 91 benign lesions were present in 106 of the 140 patients in our population. In the remaining 34 patients no lesions were identified either at initial imagingor at follow-up after a minimum of 12 months. Sixteen out of the 34 patients with no lesions underwent liver transplantation.
Diagnostic performance: Significantly higher diagnostic accuracy, sensitivity 0.87 (0.81, 0.92) and NPV 0.80 (0.70, 87) was achieved on dynamic + hepatobiliary phase MRI compared with US, MDCT and dynamic phase MRI alone (data for lesions of all sizes, rest see article). The specificity 0.62 (0.5, 0.68) and PPV 0.71 (0.68, 0.82) of US was significantly lower than that of MDCT, dynamic phase MRI and dynamic + hepatobiliary phase MRI(data for lesions of all sizes, rest see article).

Author conclusions:  "In summary, our study suggests that while US, MDCT and dynamic phase MRI may be appropriate for detection and characterisation of large (>2 cm) HCC nodules in patients with cirrhosis, significantly better sensitivity and diagnostic accuracy is achieved on dynamic + hepatobiliary phase MRI after the administration of gadobenate dimeglumine. A particular benefit of this latter technique may be in the evaluation of liver nodules between 1 and 2 cm in size, since the diagnostic performance achieved may obviate the need for lesion biopsy
in certain patients with suspicious nodules."
Methodical Notes
Funding Sources:  not declared.

COI:  not declared.

Notes:  Evidence level 2: Individual prospective studies with consistently applied reference standard and blinding.

Forner, A. et al. Lack of arterial hypervascularity at contrast-enhanced ultrasound should not define the priority for diagnostic work-up of nodules <2 cm="" j="" hepatol="" 62="" 150-5="" 2015="" th="">
Evidence level/Study Types Population Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  3

Study type:  Prospective diagnostic study.
Number of patients / samples:  Number of patients: 168 patients: Inclusion: Prospectively included asymptomatic patients with Child-Pugh class A-B cirrhosis with no history of HCC, in whom a new, solitary, well-defined, solid nodule between 10 and 20 mm was detected by screening ultrasonography (US)

Reference standard:  Fine needle biopsy (FNB) was considered the gold standard and was applied in all patients.

Validation:  "Upon initial detection of hepatic nodule at screening ultrasound (US)... we registered all clinical data. Patients were examined by dynamic MRI and CEUS
with a second-generation contrast agent (SonoVue, Bracco, Italy), and finally
submitted to fine-needle biopsy (FNB)."

Blinding:  No blinding described.

Inclusion of clinical information:  "Upon initial detection of hepatic nodule at screening ultrasound (US) and after signing informed consent, we registered all clinical data."

Dealing with ambiguous clinical findings:  -
Results:  In 119 nodules the final diagnosis was HCC (70.8%). In fourteen of these patients, HCC diagnosis was established only by non-invasive criteria. Regarding the 49 non-HCC nodules, threenodules were intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma (ICC) (1.8%), 1
lesion corresponded to a metastasis of a poor-differentiated neuroendocrine tumour (0.6%), and the remaining forty-five lesions were classified as benign nodules (26.8%).
CEUS did not detect contrast hyperenhancement in the arterial phase in 55 cases (34%). 18 out of these 55 nodules were diagnosed as HCC. Non-CEUS hyper-enhanced HCCs were more frequently well-differentiated than CEUS-hyper-enhanced
HCCs (p <0.004). 14 patients were treated with ablation and 4 with resection. 10 (55.6%) patients experienced tumour recurrence after treatment, mostly distant, confirming their overt malignant profile.

Author conclusions:  "Absence of contrast hyperenhancement on CEUS during the arterial phase in nodules <2 cm="" in="" a="" cirrhotic="" liver="" does="" not="" predict="" a="" less="" malignant="" profile="" accordingly="" priority="" for="" diagnostic="" work-up="" and="" treatment="" should="" not="" differ="" according="" to="" contrast="" profiles="" on="" ceus="" td="">
Methodical Notes
Funding Sources:  "The authors who have taken part in this study declared that they do not have anything to disclose regarding funding or conflict of interest with respect to this manuscript."

COI:  "The authors who have taken part in this study declared that they do not have anything to disclose regarding funding or conflict of interest with respect to this manuscript."

Notes:  Evidence level 3: Prospective studies without consistently applied reference standard or Prospective studies without blinding or Retrospective studies (non-consecutive studies) with reference standard and blinding.
Notes:No blinding was performed.

Furlan, A. et al. Enhancement pattern of small hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) at contrast-enhanced US (CEUS), MDCT, and MRI: intermodality agreement and comparison of diagnostic sensitivity between 2005 and 2010 American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases (AASLD) g. Eur J Radiol. 81. 2099-105. 2012
Evidence level/Study Types Population Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  4

Study type:  Retrospective diagnostic study.
Number of patients / samples:  Inclusion: (i) cirrhotic patients with new lesions 10–20 mm in maximum transverse diameter detected at routine US-surveillance between January 2008 and December 2009; (ii) lesion’s diagnostic work-up using a combination of two contrast-enhanced imaging techniques among CEUS, MDCT, and MRI performed within 15 days; and (iii) conclusive diagnosis of HCC.
Exclusion:(i) tumors at advanced stage (portal vein neoplastic thrombosis; infiltrative tumor); (ii) multifocal HCC (>3 nodules); and (iii) lesions receiving loco-regional treatment prior to imaging.
Population: 91 patients (mean age, 68 years; range, 43–86 years) were included in the final study population. 69 men and 22 women.
The underlying cause of cirrhosis was hepatitis C in 73 cases, and hepatitis B in the remaining 18 patients.
There was a total of 96 HCCs, Mean ± standard deviation (SD) of tumor maximum transverse diameter was 15.2±3.8mm (range, 10–20 mm).

Reference standard:  No reference standard is used. Instead different imaging techniques for HCC are compared contrast-enhanced CEUS, MDCT, and MRI.

Validation:  All 96 lesions were studied with two contrast enhanced imaging techniques: 59/96 (61%) HCCs (mean size, 15.5±3.6mm) in 57 patients were studied at both CEUS and MDCT; 26/96 (27%) HCCs (mean size, 15.6±4.1mm) in 25 patients were studied at both CEUS and MRI; 11/96 (12%) HCCs (mean size, 12.0±2.2mm) in 9 patients were studied at both MDCT and MRI.


Blinding:  no blinding was performed.

Inclusion of clinical information:  "Demographic and clinical characteristics, including age, gender, etiology of cirrhosis, and level of serum alpha-fetoprotein were documented for each patient."

Dealing with ambiguous clinical findings:  -
Results:  91 patients (69 M; 22 F; mean age, 68 years) with 96 HCCs, studied with a combination of CEUS and MDCT (n = 59), CEUS and MRI (n = 26), or MDCT and MRI (n = 11).
Intermodality agreement for assessment of tumor enhancement pattern was 67% (k = 0.294, P = 0.001). Typical enhancement pattern was detected coincidentally at two imaging modalities in 50 (52%) HCCs. Sensitivity for the diagnosis of HCC increased significantly using the 2010 AASLD (81/96 (84%) vs. 50/96 (52%), P < 0.001).

Author conclusions:  "Agreement between two imaging modalities for the detection of typical tumor enhancement pattern was reached in 52% of cases. The 2010 AASLD guidelines significantly increased the sensitivity for the diagnosis of HCC."
Methodical Notes
Funding Sources:  none disclosed.

COI:  none.

Notes:  Evidence level: 4 Prospective studies without blinding and reference standard,
Retrospective studies without reference standard or without blinding; Small study groups
Notes: No reference standard is used and no blinding performed. Very small n overall and for certain imaging technique comparisons (n=11).

Granito, A. et al. Impact of gadoxetic acid (Gd-EOB-DTPA)-enhanced magnetic resonance on the non-invasive diagnosis of small hepatocellular carcinoma: a prospective study. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 37. 355-63. 2013
Evidence level/Study Types Population Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  3

Study type:  Prospective diagnostic study
Number of patients / samples:  From December 2008 to January 2011, all cirrhotics with a de novo liver nodule found during the US surveillance program at the Department of Clinical Medicine of University of Bologna, and at the Diagnostic Imaging Department, Spedali Civili di Brescia, were recruited. A total of 33 patients with 48 newly detected liver
lesions were enrolled, 26 patients with 41 nodules at the Department of Clinical Medicine of University of Bologna, and 7 patients with 7 nodules at the Diagnostic Imaging Department of Brescia.

The inclusion criteria were the following:
(i) patients over 18 years of age.
(ii) the absence of a previous HCC diagnosis or, in case of previous HCC, a maximum of two small nodules treated with curative treatment (resection, local ablation) and only if free from recurrence for at least 2 years.
(iii) size of nodules between 1 and 3 cm.
(iv) total number of liver nodules between 1 and 3.
(v) satisfactory visibility of nodules at conventional US.
(vi) absence of contraindications for performing imaging techniques.
(vii) no evidence of extrahepatic metastasis or vascular invasion.

Sixty-nine patients with newly diagnosed nodules were excluded because they did not meet the inclusion criteria.

Reference standard:  The diagnosis of cirrhosis was established by either histology or a combination of physical examination, biochemical tests and imaging features.

Validation:  The diagnostic accuracy of the hepatobiliary phase for the diagnosis of HCC was 94%, with a
- sensitivity of 100% (95% CI: 90–100),
- specificity 70% (95% CI: 35–93),
- positive predictive value of 93% (95% CI: 80– 98),
- negative predictive value of 100% (95% CI: 59–100),
- positive likelihood ratio of 3.33 (95% CI: 1.2–8.4) and
- negative likelihood ratio of 0 (95% CI: 0–0.2).

Blinding:  All patients underwent contrast-enhanced ultrasound (CEUS), helical computed tomography (CT), and Gd-EOB-DTPAenhanced MR. The interpretation of each of these imaging modalities was carried out in a blinded fashion by each operator. In all cases, the operators were aware of the presence, location and size of the new nodule detected by US.

Inclusion of clinical information:  Before referring patients to imaging methods and performing a liver biopsy, written informed consent was obtained.

Dealing with ambiguous clinical findings:  -
Results:  Of the 48 nodules, 38 (79%) were diagnosed as HCC, 24 of them (63%) based on the AASLD noninvasive criteria and 14 diagnosed at histology (n = 11) or follow-up (n = 3).

Thirty-one HCCs had a typical vascular pattern (arterial hypervascularity and portal/delayed washout) in at least one imaging technique. It was detected in 30 (79%) HCC nodules by MR, in 22 (58%) by CT and in 17 (45%) by CEUS.

Magnetic resonance was significantly more sensitive in detecting this typical vascular pattern than CEUS, considering both the 38 HCC nodules (P = 0.004, Fisher’s exact test) and the nodules between 1 and 2 cm (P = 0.008, Fisher’s exact test). In nodules greater than 2 cm, these differences were not statistically significant, although MR had a higher sensitivity than CT and CEUS.

The MR pattern of washout in the venous phase followed by hypointensity in the hepatobiliary phase, without hyperenhancement in the arterial phase, corresponded in 8 of 8 cases to a final diagnosis of HCC (PPV 100%).

Author conclusions:  In conclusion, our study showed that Gd-EOB-DTPA MR might significantly impact the surveillance strategy of cirrhotic patients and emphasised the importance of the combination of the vascular and the hepatobiliary phases in the characterisation of small nodules.
Methodical Notes
Funding Sources:  None

COI:  Luigi Bolondi, Rita Golfieri and Fabio Piscaglia have received fees as speakers and for participation in advisory boards from Bayer. Luigi Bolondi and Fabio Piscaglia have acted as consultants for Bracco.

Notes:  Evidence level: 3 Prospective studies without consistently applied reference standard or Prospective studies without blinding or Retrospective studies (non-consecutive studies) with reference standard and blinding.
Notes: No independent reference standard applied in all patients.

Haradome, H. et al. Additional value of gadoxetic acid-DTPA-enhanced hepatobiliary phase MR imaging in the diagnosis of early-stage hepatocellular carcinoma: comparison with dynamic triple-phase multidetector CT imaging. J Magn Reson Imaging. 34. 69-78. 2011
Evidence level/Study Types Population Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  3

Study type:  Retrospective diagnostic study.
Number of patients / samples:  We found 176 consecutive patients suspected of having HCC. Among these patients, 46 patients were excluded from the study because of a lack of satisfactory confirmation (ie, if both pathological proof and sufficient follow-up examinations were not available). Fifty-five patients were considered ineligible for the study because of 1) a long interval between MDCT and MRI (more than 21 days) (n = 26); 2) the presence of more than 10 HCC lesions (n = 18);
or 3) inadequate MDCT examination (n = 6) (extravasation of contrast agent or equipment failure) or MRI examination (n = 5) (nondiagnostic image quality due to severe motion artifacts).

Finally, 75 patients (60 men and 15 women; age range 42–67 years; mean age 54.7 years) with a total of 86 nodules were enrolled in this study.

Reference standard:  The diagnosis of all 60 HCC nodules was achieved based on pathologic specimens: surgical resection (n = 19) or fine needle biopsy (n = 41).

Validation:  All lesions (n = 60) 5 (numbers for analysis)
Reader 1 - MDCT - Dynamic MRI - combined MRI
Sensitivity 68.3 (41/60) 75.0 (45/60) 86.7 (52/60)*,y
Specificity 94.9 (37/39) 92.3 (36/39) 89.7 (35/39)
Reader 2
Sensitivity 71.7 (43/60) 78.3 (47/60) 86.7 (52/60)*
Specificity 94.9 (37/39) 94.9 (37/39) 92.3 (36/39)

Blinding:  Two abdominal radiologists with 21 and 15 years of experience, respectively, in the interpretation of hepatic MR images independently, blindly, and randomly evaluated three imaging modalities: 1) triphase dynamic MDCT (arterial, portal, and equilibrium phases); 2) dynamic MRI: unenhanced (precontrast T1WI and T2WI) and EOB-enhanced dynamic images (arterial, portal, and late phases); 3) combined MRI: dynamic + hepatobiliary phase images on a lesion-by lesion basis. The readers were aware of the image phase and that all patients had cirrhosis and suspected HCC, but were unaware of the results of tumor
histopathology, US findings, tumor marker levels (eg, AFP, PIVKA II), and the opinions of other readers.

Inclusion of clinical information:  Among the 86 nodules, 60 nodules were HCCs, 10 nodules were hemangiomas, and the remaining 16 nodules were
arterioportal (A-P) shunts. In all, 38 patients had only HCC, 14 had HCC accompanied with hemangioma or
A-P shunt, and seven had only hemangioma or A-P shunt.

Dealing with ambiguous clinical findings:  
Results:  ROC Analysis:
The two readers had comparable (not significantly different) Az values for all lesions between MDCT and dynamic MRI. However, both readers achieved significantly higher Az values for all lesions with combined MRI than with dynamic MRI (P = 0.0083 for reader 1, and P = 0.0162 for reader 2). Reader agreement for the diagnosis of HCC using MDCT, dynamic MRI, and combined MRI was good to excellent, given the k values of 0.921 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.881–0.961), 0.921 (95% CI: 0.882–0.960), and 0.789 (95% CI: 0.727– 0.850), respectively.

For both readers, Az and sensitivity of combined MRI for smaller lesions (<1.5 cm="" were="" significantly="" higher="" than="" that="" of="" dynamic="" mri="" and="" mdct="" p="" 0="" 0166="" the="" majority="" of="" false-negative="" nodules="" on="" dynamic="" mri="" or="" mdct="" 75="" and="" 62="" respectively="" were="" due="" to="" a="" lack="" of="" identified="" washout="" findings="" br="">
Author conclusions:  In conclusion, the performance of dynamic EOB-enhanced MRI for the diagnosis of early stage HCC is equivalent to that of triple-phase dynamic MDCT. The diagnostic performance of dynamic EOB-enhanced MRI can significantly be improved by adding hepatobiliary phase images, in particular in small lesions showing isointensity during portal or equilibrium phases. The sensitivity and accuracy of EOB-enhanced MRI with hepatobiliary phase imaging were significantly superior to MDCT for the diagnosis of lesions less than 1.5 cm in diameter. EOB-enhanced MRI has the potential to replace dynamic MDCT imaging and could become a promising modality for the noninvasive management of patients with HCC.
Methodical Notes
Funding Sources:  n.s.

COI:  n.s.

Notes:  Evidence level 3: Prospective studies without consistently applied reference standard or Prospective studies without blinding or Retrospective studies (non-consecutive studies) with reference standard and blinding.

Inoue, T. et al. Assessment of Gd-EOB-DTPA-enhanced MRI for HCC and dysplastic nodules and comparison of detection sensitivity versus MDCT. J Gastroenterol. 47. 1036-47. 2012
Evidence level/Study Types Population Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  3

Study type:  Retrospective diagnostic study.
Number of patients / samples:  66 patients with 86 nodules pathologically diagnosed as HCCs or DNs.

Reference standard:  All 86 nodules were diagnosed pathologically as HCC (77 nodules) or DN (9 nodules).

Validation:  see results

Blinding:  Dynamic MDCT studies were evaluated by blinded reviewers who were unaware of the findings of the other imaging techniques and of the pathologic and clinical data.
MRI scans were interpreted by 3 experienced radiologists who were unaware of the findings of the other imaging techniques or of the pathologic and clinical data.

Inclusion of clinical information:   Baseline characteristics of the patients are shown. Written informed consent was obtained from all patients.

Dealing with ambiguous clinical findings:  In cases of discrepancy, the reviewers assessed the saved images together and reevaluated their findings to reach an agreement.
Results:  diagnostic sensitivity of Gd-EOBDTPA-enhanced MRI versus dynamic MDCT for hypervascular HCCs:
Gd-EOB-DTPA-enhanced MRI was 91% (41/45) versus 76% (34/45) with dynamic MDCT (p = 0.0103, McNemar’s v2 test).
-based on the size of the tumors (2 or > 2 cm): diagnostic sensitivity of Gd-EOB-DTPA-enhanced MRI was significantly higher than that of MDCT for lesions of 2 cm or less (p = 0.048, McNemar’s v2 test).

Comparison of the detection sensitivity of Gd-EOB-DTPA-enhanced MRI versus dynamic MDCT for HCCs and DNs:
There was no difference in the detection of hypervascular HCCs between hepatobiliary phase images of Gd-EOBDTPA-enhanced MRI (43/45: 96%) and dynamic MDCT (40/45: 89%).
The detection sensitivity of hepatobiliary phase images for hypovascular HCCs and DNs [32/32 for hypovascular HCCs and 7/9 for DNs, total 39/41 (95%)] was significantly higher than that achieved by dynamic MDCT [20/ 32 for hypovascular HCCs and 5/9 for DNs, total 25/41 (61%)] (p = 0.003, McNemar’s v2 test).

Author conclusions:  In conclusion, the diagnostic ability of Gd-EOB-DTPAenhanced MRI for small hypervascular HCCs less than 2 cm was significantly higher than that of MDCT. For hypovascular HCCs and DNs, the detection sensitivity of hepatobiliary phase images of Gd-EOB-DTPA-enhanced MRI was significantly higher than that of dynamic MDCT.
It was difficult to distinguish between DNs and hypovascular well-differentiated HCCs based on the EOB ER.
Further study with additional resected specimens is needed to more accurately determine the diagnostic ability of GdEOB-DTPA-enhanced MRI for DNs and hypovascular well-differentiated HCCs.
Methodical Notes
Funding Sources:  n.s.

COI:  The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Notes:  Evidence level: 3 Prospective studies without consistently applied reference standard or Prospective studies without blinding or Retrospective studies (non-consecutive studies) with reference standard and blinding.

Khalili, K. et al. Optimization of imaging diagnosis of 1-2 cm hepatocellular carcinoma: an analysis of diagnostic performance and resource utilization. J Hepatol. 54. 723-8. 2011
Evidence level/Study Types Population Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  4

Study type:  Retrospective diagnostic study.
Number of patients / samples:   101 nodules were found in 84 patients (1.2 nodules/patient).

Reference standard:  All patients have histologic (48, 57%) or imaging (36, 43%) evidence of cirrhosis.

Validation:  Scan - Sensitivity - Specificity - Positive predictive value - Negative predictive value - Accuracy (=95% CI)
CEUS - 53% (37-69)- 91% (82-96)- 75% (58-87)- 79% (74-83) - 78%
CT - 53% (37-69) - 99% (92-100) - 95% (78-99) - 80% (77-82) - 83%
MRI - 62% (45-76) - 100% (95-100) - 100% (96-100) - 84% (80-84) - 87%.





Blinding:  Both readers were blinded to the final diagnosis of the nodule and were only given the size and hepatic segment of the nodule in question.

Inclusion of clinical information:  -

Dealing with ambiguous clinical findings:  -
Results:  Maasuring diagnostic performance (3 strategies):
Strategy 1: Single imaging scan only (CEUS, CT, or MRI)
Strategy 2, Coincidental scanning: Combining 2 contrast enhanced imaging scans, requiring both to be positive for a positive diagnosis (AASLD strategy)
Strategy 3, Sequential scanning: Performing one imaging scan on all nodules, and performing the second scan only on nodules deemed indeterminate on the first scan.

Diagnostic performance of single imaging scans:
There was no statistically significant difference in the sensitivities of individual imaging
modalities (p = 0.6). MRI was significantly more specific than CEUS (p = 0.04), but not CT.

Strategy 2:
There was no significant difference in the differences of sensitivity ( p≤ P 0.34) and specificity (p ≥ 0.31) between the combinations of imaging modalities.

Strategy 3:
There was no significant difference in the sensitivity (p ≥P 0.61) or specificity (p ≥P 0.07) between the modality combinations.
For Details see publication.

General: Sensitivities/specificities for single scans is already high (53–62% and 91–100%). When two scans were combined requiring both to be positive, sensitivities/specificities ranged between 29–41% and 99–100%. When two scans were combined sequentially, requiring only one to be positive, sensitivities/specificities ranged between 74–89% and 91–99%.

Author conclusions:  In summary our results show that for imaging work-up of 1– 2 cm nodules found on surveillance for HCC, sequential imaging
(obtaining a second imaging scan only when the first is negative) improves sensitivity and with it reduces the number of potential biopsies or follow-up scans but is subject to lower specificity. We have also shown that single imaging modalities have a very high specificity for diagnosis of 1–2 cm nodules; similar to what is reported for nodules greater than 2 cm. The addition of a second coincident imaging scan does not significantly improve specificity but has a greater detrimental effect on malignancy detection and resource usage. Our conclusions have been considered in the latest (2010) revision of the AASLD guidelines which now advocate sequential imaging work-up of 1–2 cm nodules instead of a second coincident imaging scan.
Methodical Notes
Funding Sources:  n.s.

COI:  The authors who have taken part in this study declared that they do not have anything to disclose regarding funding or conflict of interest with respect to this manuscript.

Notes:  EL 4: Retrospective studies without consistently applied reference standard

Liu, G. J. et al. Contrast-Enhanced Ultrasound for the Characterization of Hepatocellular Carcinoma and Intrahepatic Cholangiocarcinoma. Liver Cancer. 4. 241-52. 2015
Evidence level/Study Types Population Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  4

Study type:  Retrospective diagnostic study, China
Number of patients / samples:  819 patients (HCC=546, ICC=273)

Reference standard:  No reference standard was used.

Validation:  Differenatioan of HCC and ICC by CEUS.

Blinding:  Yes. "The reviews were performed by consensus by two readers who each had at least five years of experience in liver CEUS; the readers were not involved in the imaging acquisition and they were blinded to the clinical histories,.."

Inclusion of clinical information:  Yes. "The clinical data showed that compared with ICC, HCC occurred mostly in younger predominantly male patients, and in those with chronic hepatitis infections and/or cirrhosis (p<0.05). Regarding the tumor markers, elevated alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) was more common in the patients with HCC, whereas CA19-9 and CA125 were more common in the patients with ICC (all p<0.05). Elevated AFP levels (>20 ng/ml) were present in 67.8% (370/546) of the patients with HCC but only in 7.3% (20/273) of the patients with ICC, respectively.

Dealing with ambiguous clinical findings:  -
Results:  Arterial hyperenhancement followed by washout was observed in 92.3% (504/546) of the HCC lesions and 85.7% (234/273) of the ICC lesions on CEUS (p<0.05). Additionally, the ICCs presented contrast washout much earlier than the HCCs, with an average time of 27.5 seconds after injecting the contrast agent compared with 70.1 seconds for the HCCs (p<0.05). Peripheral rim-like enhancement was observed in 68.5% (187/273) of the ICCs, which was significantly more common than that in the HCCs (2.0%, 11/546) (p<0.05). When using arterial hyperenhancement with a washout phase later than 43 seconds after injecting the contrast agent and with no peripheral rim-like enhancement as the diagnostic criteria for HCC ≤5 cm in diameter, the area under the curve was 0.808, with 64.1% sensitivity, 97.4% specificity and 73.6% accuracy.

Author conclusions:  "In summary, the majority of HCCs and ICCs may show typical patterns of arterial hyperenhancement, with portal or late phase contrast washout on CEUS. The differentiation between these two entities is difficult, but peripheral rim-like enhancement and quick contrast washout may be useful features in this regard. CEUS should have a proper position in the noninvasive diagnostic algorithm of HCC, with the benefits of safety, absence of radiation, good tolerability, cost effectiveness and high efficiency."
Methodical Notes
Funding Sources:  not stated.

COI:  none.

Notes:  Evidence level 4: Prospective studies without blinding and reference standard,
Retrospective studies without reference standard or without blinding; Small study groups
Notes: No reference standard was applied. Differenatioan of HCC and ICC by CEUS.

Manini, M. A. et al. Clinical and economical impact of 2010 AASLD guidelines for the diagnosis of hepatocellular carcinoma. J Hepatol. 60. 995-1001. 2014
Evidence level/Study Types Population Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  4

Study type:  Prospective diagnostic study. Italy.
Number of patients / samples:  Number of patients: 119 Recruitment: 2009-2012 Inclusion: all patients with a Child–Pugh A-B cirrhosis and a de novo liver nodule detected during US surveillance were consecutively recruited in four referral Italian centers for liver disease. Exclusion: Patients with a pre-existing liver nodule, a previous HCC or ICC diagnosis, and those with poor liver function (Child–Pugh C) were excluded.



Reference standard:  "study designed to assess the diagnostic performance of the 2010 vs. 2005 AASLD recommendations for the diagnosis of de novo liver nodules detected in cirrhotic patients with compensated cirrhosis under surveillance with ultrasounds (US)."

"The gold standard for the diagnosis of HCC was the concordance of 2005 and 2010
AASLD radiological criteria [2,7] and histology in the remaining cases". "A FNB was performed when required to meet both 2005 and 2010 AASLD criteria."
The gold standard was not applied to all participants.

Validation:  "The gold standard for the diagnosis of HCC was the concordance of 2005 and 2010
AASLD radiological criteria [2,7] and histology in the remaining cases. An at least 6 month enhanced follow-up was required to confirm histological non-malignancy."
"All patients were sequentially examined by CEUS and CT, using MRI as a rescue approach in patients lacking a typical vascular pattern for HCC by one or both contrast techniques in the 1–2 cm nodules and by CT in the >2 cm nodules.

Blinding:  No blinding was performed.

Inclusion of clinical information:  "After giving an informed consent in the presence of an independent witness, patients were assessed following the collection of a detailed medical history, a physical examination, complete blood count and biochemical tests, including serum
alpha-fetoprotein (AFP), and viral hepatitis and autoimmunity serum markers,
and finally enrolled."

Dealing with ambiguous clinical findings:  -
Results:  84 (70%) nodules were HCC: the radiological diagnosis was done in 38 (88%) of those 1–2 cm and in 38 (95%) for those >2 cm HCCs according to 2010 AASLD criteria.
CT or MRI detected 13 HCC nodules that were missed by unenhanced US. Despite an absolute specificity, CEUS failed to identify any HCC uncharacterized by CT or MRI. By updated AASLD criteria 6 (17%) FNB procedures were spared in patients with 1–2 cm nodules (p = 0.025), as compared to 2005 criteria. The 2010 vs.
2005 AASLD per patient cost was similar in 1–2 cm nodules, 432 € vs. 451 € (p = 0.46), but lower in >2 cm nodules, 248 € vs. 321 € (p <0.001).

Author conclusions:  "..sequential application of imaging techniques and FNB for the diagnosis of HCC as suggested by the updated AASLD and EASL recommendations, results in a significant spare of FNB procedures to evaluate 1–2 cm nodules and in significant
cost saving for the characterization of >2 cm nodules."
Methodical Notes
Funding Sources:  none described

COI:  "Massimo Colombo: Grant and research support: Merck, Roche, BMS, Gilead Science; Advisory committees: Merck, Roche, Novartis, Bayer, BMS, Gilead Science, Tibotec, Vertex, Janssen Cilag, Achillion, Lundbeck, Abbott, Boehringer Ingelheim;
Speaking and teaching: Tibotec, Roche, Novartis, Bayer, BMS, Gilead Science, Vertex.
Alessio Aghemo: Grant and Research Support: Roche, Gilead Science; Speaking and Teaching: Roche, Janssen, Merck; Travel support: BMS, Glaxo Smith- Kline, Bayer, Janssen, Roche, Merck.
Antonio Grieco: speaking and travel support: Janssen, BMS, Merck, Roche, Bayer.


Notes:  Evidence level 4: Prospective studies without blinding and reference standard, Retrospective studies without reference standard or without blinding; Small study groups
Notes: No blinding was performed. Reference standard was not applied to all patients.

Mueller, C. et al. Non-invasive diagnosis of hepatocellular carcinoma revisited. Gut. 67. 991-993. 2018
Evidence level/Study Types Population Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  4

Study type:  Retrospective diagnostic study.
Number of patients / samples:  94 biopsies of 92 patients (after exclusion of 88 biopsies).

Reference standard:  Unclear.

Validation:  The full diagnostic power of Liver Imaging Reporting and Data System (LI-RADS) became evident, when applied on late arterial images. Under this condition, the performance of non-invasive HCC diagnosis in daily routine practice was as reported from carefully controlled and supervised studies sensitivity: 96% vs 64%, p<0.001; accuracy: 80% vs 61%, p=0.017.

Blinding:  -

Inclusion of clinical information:  

Dealing with ambiguous clinical findings:  
Results:  HCC development was associated with the presence of cirrhosis (n=51/65, p<0.001), which was also found in 27%
(3/11) of ICC and 33% (1/3) of combined hepatocellular–cholangiocarcinoma (HCC– CC) patients.

The number of false-positive non-invasive HCC diagnosis was higher in patients without cirrhosis (n=13/19), while most false-negative diagnoses (n=19/22) occurred in patients with cirrhosis.
Thus, the imaging features of HCC are characteristic but neither specific nor pathognomonic. A particular challenge represents the identification of HCC–CC and ICC. According to a recent study, about 70% of HCC–CCs were misclassified by both CT and MRI.



Author conclusions:  In summary, we encourage the use of LI-RADS in clinical practice, as the distinction of HCC, ICC and HCC-CC
has profound clinical implications and LI-RADS seems to separate these entities better than classical algorithms. To
prevent mistreatment a biopsy should be performed whenever there is doubt on the typing of an observation or the patient is low risk for HCC development. Our findings should be validated in a prospective randomised controlled trial.
Methodical Notes
Funding Sources:  TL was supported by grants of the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (LO-1676/2-1) and the
Deutsche Krebshilfe (110881).

COI:  None declared.

Notes:  Evidence level 4: Prospective studies without blinding and reference standard,
Retrospective studies without reference standard or without blinding; Small study groups
Notes: Retrospective studiy without reference standard and without blinding.

Sun, H. Y. et al. Gadoxetic acid-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging for differentiating small hepatocellular carcinomas (< or =2 cm in diameter) from arterial enhancing pseudolesions: special emphasis on hepatobiliary phase imaging. Invest Radiol. 45. 96-103. 2010
Evidence level/Study Types Population Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  4

Study type:  Retrospective diagnostic study.
Number of patients / samples:  351 patients with liver cirrhosis were referred to the Radiology Department for Gadoxetic acid-enhanced MRI of suspected focal hepatic lesions detected on ultrasound examination or because of the clinical suspicion for HCC. Among these 146 patients with small, arterial, enhancing, hepatic lesions (2 cm in diameter) were detected. 77 were
excluded for one or more of the following reasons: (a) lack of confirming proof of the diagnosis of HCC or AEP (n =63); (b) more than 5 hepatic lesions (n =6); and (c) the presence of both HCC and AEP in the same hepatic lobe (n =8).

The remaining 69 patients with 97 arterial enhancing hepatic lesions (56 men and 13 women; age range, 39–73 years; mean, 55.8 years) were included.

Reference standard:  In all patients, the diagnosis of liver cirrhosis was made according to the pathology findings (n =18) or a combination of the radiologic findings, clinical findings, and the results of laboratory examinations including blood chemistry tests (n = 51).

Validation:  Diagnostic Performance of Gadoxetic Acid-Enhanced Dynamic MRI
Sensitivities for HCC characterization were 96.2% for reviewers 1 and 93.2% for reviewer 2, respectively. Specificities were 96.2% for both reviewers. Positive and negative predictive values were 95.5% and 96.2% for reviewer 1 and 95.3% and 94.4% for reviewer 2, respectively. Interobserver agreement was good (kappa = 0.80).

For gadoxetic acid-enhanced dynamic MRI and multiphasic CT, the k values for the 2 observers were 0.80 and 0.639, respectively, thus indicating good interobserver agreement.

Blinding:  Using the extracted enhancement characteristics as the diagnostic criteria, 2 other radiologists with 12 and 5 years, respectively, of clinical experience and who were blinded to the final diagnosis of arterial enhancing lesions, independently
reviewed the MR images in random order and recorded the confidence level of each lesion on a 5-point scale where “1” was defined as “definitely AEP,” “2” as “probably AEP,” “3” as “indeterminate,” “4” as “probably HCC,” and “5” as “definitely HCC.”

Inclusion of clinical information:  Among the 69 included patients, 13 had 2 arterial enhancing lesions, 4 had 3 lesions, 1 had 4 lesions, and 1 had 5 lesions. Furthermore, of these 69 patients, in 42 patients with 60 arterial enhancing lesions detected on MRI, quadruple-phase CT studies performed within 4 weeks before or after the MRI, were available for direct comparison of the MR and CT imaging on a lesion-by-lesion basis.

Dealing with ambiguous clinical findings:  
Results:  Morphological characteristics of HCCs and AEPs:
The mean diameters of the HCCs and AEPs were 1.37 ± 0.41 and 1.09 ± 0.26, respectively. There was a tendency for AEPs to be more often located adjacent to the surface compared with HCCs (P= 0.0268).

Enhancement Characteristics of HCCs and AEPs:

Among 44 HCCs, 42 (95.4%) demonstrated low signal intensity (SI) and only 2 showed iso- or high SI on the hepatobiliary phase of gadoxetic acid-enhanced MRI. Alternatively, most AEPs showed iso SI on the hepatobiliary (n = 50, 94.3%) phase, and only 2 AEPs showed low SI.

Comparison of the Diagnostic Performance of Liver MRI and MDCT:
For both reviewers, MR imaging showed a tendency toward higher Az values than those of CT imaging although the differences were not statistically significant (P=0.069 for reviewer 1 and 0.106 for reviewer 2). However, the MR sensitivities of each reviewer for the differentiation of HCC and AEP, were greater than 90% and were significantly higher than the CT sensitivities of 54.5%. Specificity with CT was slightly higher than that with MR, but both were greater than 90% and there was no statistical difference.

Author conclusions:  In conclusion, small (2 cm in diameter) HCC and AEP show different enhancing features on the hepatobiliary phase of gadoxetate disodium-enhanced MRI. Using the hepatobiliary phase of gadoxetic disodium-enhanced MRI, these pseudolesions may be differentiated from HCCs, thus preventing additional, unnecessary treatment, which can result in further decreased hepatic functioning in patients with liver cirrhosis.
Methodical Notes
Funding Sources:  n.s.

COI:  n.s.

Notes:  Evidence level: 4 Prospective studies without blinding and reference standard, Retrospective studies without reference standard or without blinding;
Small study groups

Tsurusaki, M. et al. Comparison of gadoxetic acid-enhanced magnetic resonance imaging and contrast-enhanced computed tomography with histopathological examinations for the identification of hepatocellular carcinoma: a multicenter phase III study. J Gastroenterol. 51. 71-9. 2016
Evidence level/Study Types Population Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  2

Study type:  prospective diagnostic study
Number of patients / samples:  Patients were eligible for enrollment if they had ≤10 known focal liver lesions that were strongly suspected of being HCCs on the basis of ultrasound and tumor marker results, had undergone multiphasic MDCT within 4 weeks before undergoing gadoxetic acid-enhanced MRI, and were scheduled for a defined standard of reference (SOR) surgical procedure for verification of the presence of lesions and characterization.
The final study cohort consisted of 54 non-consecutive patients (mean age 63 years; range 35–84 years) with 83 confirmed liver lesions and included 39 men (mean age 66 years; range 41–79 years) and 15 women (mean age 65 years; range 43–84 years).

Reference standard:  histopathological examinations (surgery)

Validation:  sensitivity and positive predictive value (PPV) of the CT and MRI sets for detection of HCC by each observer were assessed by using the number of lesions that were assigned confidence scores of 3 or 4 (i.e., probably HCC or definitely HCC) of all HCCs. The McNemar test was used by each observer to compare the sensitivity and PPV for CT and MRI sets among the composite data.
The alternative free-response receiver operating characteristics (AFROC) analysis for each reader and each image set was performed on a tumor-by-tumor basis by using a maximum-likelihood estimation program. The area under each AFROC curve (Az) indicated the overall diagnostic accuracy of each image set and each reader.
Interobserver variability was assessed by calculating the kappa statistic for multiple observers and nonweighted kappa statistics, with binary data defined by the presence or absence of liver metastases.

Blinding:  image assessment
The CT and MR images were independently and randomly assessed by three observers with at least 5 years of experience in the interpretation of liver MR images. All three observers were unaware of the study design; they were aware that the patients were at risk of HCC, but were unaware of the imaging findings or the final diagnosis.
histopathological assessment
2 radiologists, who had not participated in the interpretation sessions, determined the presence or absence of HCCs on the basis of findings obtained at definitive surgery that involved intraoperative US. Hepatic resection and intraoperative US for the non-resected segments were performed by surgeons who were aware of the preoperative MRI findings.

Inclusion of clinical information:  HCC was suspected on the basis of the results of previous ultrasonographic (US) examination or elevation of alpha-fetoprotein levels (>400 ng/ml [400µlg/l]).

Dealing with ambiguous clinical findings:  The CT and MR images were independently and randomly assessed by three observers. Interobserver variability was calculated to ascertain agreement.
Results:  Interobserver agreement
Good-to-excellent (kappa =0.64–0.82) reader agreement for the detection of HCC lesions with each technique was obtained among the three readers.
AFROC-analysis
Regardless of lesion size, significantly higher diagnostic accuracy for the detection of HCC lesions was achieved by each reader for gadoxetic acid-enhanced MRI (mean Az=0.927 for all lesions) than for multiphasic MDCT image set (Az=0.864).
Sensitivity
For the subgroup of HCC lesions ≤1 cm in diameter and the subgroup of HCC lesions 1–2 cm in diameter, the mean sensitivity was significantly higher for gadoxetic acid-enhanced MRI than for multiphasic MDCT. The MR sensitivities of the two readers for detection of all HCCs were significantly higher than those of multiphasic MDCT (p=0.029 and 0.060).
False-negative findings
Nine lesions (>1–2 cm,n=2; ≤1 cm,n=7) in six patients, which were confirmed by histopathological inspection of the surgically resected specimen (n=6)were not detected with a high confidence score of 3 or 4 by any reader on any image set and were thus deemed false-negative lesions.
False-positive findings and PPV
There were no significant differences between the mean PPVs between gadoxetic acid-enhanced MRI and multi-phasic MDCT.

Author conclusions:  In summary, the sensitivity and accuracy for detection of HCCs were significantly higher for gadoxetic acid-enhanced 3T MRI than for multiphasic 64-sectional MDCT in this multicenter prospective study.
Methodical Notes
Funding Sources:  There was no financial support or relationships that posed a conflict of interest.

COI:  The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Notes:  Evidence level 2: Individual prospective study with consistently applied reference standard and blinding.

Wildner, D. et al. CEUS in hepatocellular carcinoma and intrahepatic cholangiocellular carcinoma in 320 patients - early or late washout matters: a subanalysis of the DEGUM multicenter trial. Ultraschall Med. 36. 132-9. 2015
Evidence level/Study Types Population Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  4

Study type:  Retrospective diagnostic study.
Number of patients / samples:  Patients with histologically proven HCC (n = 278) and ICC (n = 42) from the DEGUM multicenter trial. Inclusion:Consecutive patients with a solid liver tumor visible at routine US were recruited for CEUS at the time of their US examination, after contraindications for US contrast agent were ruled out. Exclusion: Patients with liver lesions diagnosed from characteristic characteristic B-mode echomorphology, such as patients with cysts and typical hemangiomas, as well as lesions with clear signs of malignancy were not included.

Reference standard:  No reference standard was used. All samples were identified by biopsies.

Validation:  Comparison of tumor vascularization and CEUS for the characterization of HCC and ICC.

Blinding:  No blinding was performed.

Inclusion of clinical information:  No.

Dealing with ambiguous clinical findings:  -
Results:  An underlying liver cirrhosis was found in 214/278 patients with HCC (76.9 %) and 7/42 patients with ICC (16.7 %).
In CEUS, HCC showed a global arterial hyperenhancement compared to ICC (HCC: tumor center: 60.3 %; tumor periphery: 75 %; ICC: tumor center: 16.7 %; tumor periphery:
40.5 %).
ICC showed an initial contrast enhancement primarily at the tumor periphery (ICC: 85.7 % vs. HCC: 61 %) followed by an early portalvenous contrast washout in the tumor center (ICC: 85.8 % vs. HCC: 49.8 %) and tumor periphery (ICC: 66.7 % vs. HCC: 32.6 %). HCC showed a delayed contrast washout (late phase hypoenhancement:
HCC: 75 % vs. ICC: 92.9 %).

Author conclusions:  "Tumor-specific vascularization patterns in CEUS have a high diagnostic impact on the overall high diagnostic accuracy of CEUS for the differential diagnosis of hepatic tumors in clinical practice. ICC is a very rare differential diagnosis in cirrhotic patients. CEUS can demonstrate differences in the vascularization pattern in the comparison between HCC and ICC. The majority of HCCs showed intratumoral contrast hyperenhancement in the arterial phase, whereas contrast washout is delayed beginning in the portal-venous phase. Initial contrast enhancement at the tumor periphery with early hypoenhancement in the portal-venous and late phase is a characteristic pattern of ICC."
Methodical Notes
Funding Sources:  not described.

COI:  not described.

Notes:  Evidence level: 4 Prospective studies without blinding and reference standard,
Retrospective studies without reference standard or without blinding; Small study groups
Notes: No reference standard was applied. No blinding was performed.

Wildner, D. et al. Dynamic contrast-enhanced ultrasound (DCE-US) for the characterization of hepatocellular carcinoma and cholangiocellular carcinoma. Ultraschall Med. 35. 522-7. 2014
Evidence level/Study Types Population Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  4

Study type:  Prospective diagnostic study.
Number of patients / samples:  Inclusion criteria :not described. Population: 43 patients, 23 with proven HCC, 16 with ICC. 30 men and 13 women; mean (range) age: 67 years (41 – 83).

Reference standard:  Comparison of perfusion kinetics of HCC and ICC using dynamic contrast-enhanced ultrasound (DCE-US).
No reference standard was used.

Validation:  Not investigated.

Blinding:  no blinding was performed.

Inclusion of clinical information:  Not reported.

Dealing with ambiguous clinical findings:  -
Results:  No statistical difference of the arterial DCEUS parameters was found between HCC and ICC. Contrast enhancement of the portal venous and late phases showed significantly lower values in the ICC group indicating early wash-out of the contrast agent: mTTl (p = 0.0209): HCC 118.4 s (SD± 88.4); ICC 64.8 s (SD± 49.7). FT (p = 0.0433): HCC 42.5 s (SD± 27.7); ICC 27.7 s (SD± 16.2). The percental loss of intensity at a definite time point after PEwas significantly higher in ICC than in HCC lesions.

Author conclusions:  "DCE-US is able to detect and quantify differences in perfusion kinetics between HCC and ICC. Whereas arterial contrast enhancement patterns may overlap between HCC and ICC, a timed characterization of wash-out kinetics may offer an additional tool to characterize HCC and ICC. The presence of a rapid loss of signal intensity in the early portal venous phase is significantly higher in ICC than in HCC lesions."
Methodical Notes
Funding Sources:  not stated.

COI:  not stated.

Notes:  Evidence level: 4 Prospective studies without blinding and reference standard, Retrospective studies without reference standard or without blinding Small study groups
Notes: No clinical information is available. No blinding was performed. Different methods of diagnosis confirmation were applied (either histology, MRI, CEUS). No reference standard was used, instead the same method was used to distinguish between two tumor entities.

HCC Ausbreitungsdiagnostik

Schlüsselfrage:

Welche bildgebende Untersuchungsmethode soll bei Patienten mit HCC zur Ausbreitungsdiagnostik angewendet werden?

Inhalt: 2 Literaturstellen
Literaturstelle Evidenzlevel Studientyp
Davenport, M. S. 2013 3 prospective observational study (Cohort Study)
Song, K. D. 2015 4 retrospective,observational, prognostic study


OXFORD (2011) Appraisal Sheet: Prognostic Studies: 1 Bewertung(en)
Funding Sources:  The authors state that this work has not received any funding.

COI:  The authors of this manuscript declare no relationships with any companies, whose products or services may be related to the subject matter of the article.

Randomization:  none

Blinding:  none

Dropout Rate/ITT-Analysis:  none

Notes:  Retrospective study without blinding
Song, K. D. et al. Subcentimeter hypervascular nodule with typical imaging findings of hepatocellular carcinoma in patients with history of hepatocellular carcinoma: natural course on serial gadoxetic acid-enhanced MRI and diffusion-weighted imaging. Eur Radiol. 25. 2789-96. 2015
Population Intervention Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  4

Study type:  retrospective,observational, prognostic study

Number of Patient:  a total of 39 patients (46 SHNHRs) with history of HCC were included in the study.

Recruitung Phase:  November 2012 and February 2013

Inclusion Criteria:  patients who underwent liver MRI at this institution and have a history of previous treatment for HCC with a proven SHNHRs.

Exclusion Criteria:  Among the 204 patients with SHNHRs, patients who
- had multiple (n≥4) SHNHRs (n=18),
- coexistent overt HCC (n=107),
- local tumour progression found at the site of previous treatment with TACE or RFA (n=16),
- had SHNHRs which were already detected on previous MRIs before the study period (n=5),
- and were treated immediately with TACE or RFA with no follow-up MRI due to patient preference (n=19)
were excluded .
Intervention:  serial gadoxetic acid-enhanced MRI and DWI follow-up every 2-3 months for patients with a subcentimeter hypervascular nodule at high-risk for developing into HCC (SHNHR)

Comparison:  none
Primary:  overall cumulative rate of progression to overt HCC
Hazard ratio of risk factors of progression to overt HCC

Secondary:  Tumour volume doubling time (TVDT)

Results:  - overall cumulative rate of progression to overt HCC at 3,6, 9, and 12 months was 13.9 %, 61.7 %, 83.2 %, and 89.9 %,respectively.
- Initial nodule size was the only significant predictor of progression to overt HCC in univariate (HR=1.494; 95 % CI:1.162, 1.920;P= 0.002) and multivariate analyses (HR=1.468; 95 % CI: 1.130, 1.906;P=0.004).
- sensitivity and specificity of cut-off value of 5.5 mm for predicting progression to overt HCC at 12 months were 0.671 and 0.829, respectively.
- The TVDT was 65.2±45.0 days (mean±standard deviation).


Author's Conclusion:  In conclusion, the progression rate of SHNHR to overt HCC within 12 months was high (89.9 %) in patients with a history of HCC. The initial size of SHNHR was an important predictor for progression to overt HCC.
Methodical Notes

NEWCASTLE - OTTAWA Checklist: Cohort: 1 Bewertung(en)
Davenport, M. S. et al. Comparison of acute transient dyspnea after intravenous administration of gadoxetate disodium and gadobenate dimeglumine: effect on arterial phase image quality. Radiology. 266. 452-61. 2013
Evidence level Methodical Notes Patient characteristics Interventions
Evidence level:  3

Study type:  prospective observational study (Cohort Study)
Funding sources:  There was no industry support for this study.

Conflict of Interests:  No relevant conflicts of interest to disclose

Randomization:  - The choice of contrast material was physician-dependent, not randomized, and chosen when the examination was assigned an imaging protocol.
- images of precontrast and dynamic postcontrast (arterial, venous, or late dynamic or extracellular) phases were anonymized and randomized for review.

Blinding:  - patients and physicians were not blinded to the type of GBCM administered.
- images of precontrast and dynamic postcontrast (arterial, venous, or late dynamic or extracellular) phases were anonymized and randomized for review. The hepatobiliary phase images were not included to prevent inadvertent unblinding.

Dropout rates:  
Total no. patients:  99 administrations of gadoxetate disodium in 96 patients
99 administrations of gadobenate dimeglumine in 97 patients

Recruiting Phase:  March 19, 2011, to August 31, 2011

Inclusion criteria:  

Exclusion criteria:  
Interventions:  gadobenate dimeglumine (0.1 mmol per kilogram of body weight, maximum dose, 20 mL) as contrast material for MRI


Comparison:  gadoxetate disodium (10 mL, n = 97; 8 mL, n = 1; 16 mL, n = 1) as contrast material for MRI
Notes: The interview regarding adverse events did not include standardized questions.
The paper does not comply with the PICO questions.

Author's conclusion:  Intravenous gadoxetate disodium can result in acute transient dyspnea that can have a deleterious effect on arterial phase MR image quality and occurs significantly more often than with intravenous gadobenate dimeglumine.
Outcome Measures/results Primary  incidence of acute transient dyspnea
effect of this adverse event on arterial phase image quality

Secondary  
Results:  Subjective Dyspnea (Self-reported, Transient after Injection)
Total no. of events: Gadoxetate Disodium 14 (14.1%) vs. gadobenate dimeglumine 5 (5.1%), p value 0.05
New Severe Motion During Arterial Phase (Mean Motion Score >4, No Severe Motion before GMBC Administration)
Total no. of events: Gadoxetate Disodium 17 (17.1%) vs. gadobenate dimeglumine 1 (1.0%), p value >0.0001
This effect did not extend to venous (1% vs 2% , P=0.99) or late dynamic or extracellular (2% vs 0%, P=0.5) phases.

HCC Staging-System

Schlüsselfrage:

HCC 11
Welches bestehende Staging System soll bei Patienten mit HCC verwendet werdern?

Inhalt: 11 Literaturstellen
Literaturstelle Evidenzlevel Studientyp
Chan, A. C. 2013 2 Retrospective Prognostic study
Chevret, S. 1999 3 Prospective Prognostic study, F,BE,CA
Johnson, P. J. 2015 3 Multicenter prognostic study
Kitai, S. 2008 3 Retrospective prognostic study
Leung, T. W. 2002 3 Prospective prognostic study.
Marrero, J. A. 2005 3 Prognostic, prospective study.
Pinato, D. J. 2017 2 Retrospective diagnostic study, mutlicentric (USA, Asia, Europe)
Pinyol, R. 2018 2 Subgroup of Randomized controlled trial
Toso, C. 2015 2 Prospective prognostic study, multicentric
Vitale, A. 2009 3 Prognostic study.
Yau, T. 2014 3 Retrospective prognostic study


OXFORD (2011) Appraisal Sheet: RCT: 1 Bewertung(en)
Funding Sources:  This study was supported by Bayer HealthCare Pharmaceuticals and Onyx, a wholly owned subsidiary of Amgen. JML is supported by the European Commission (EC)/Horizon 2020 Program (HEPCAR, Ref 667273-2), US Department
of Defense (CA150272P3), Asociación Española Contra el Cáncer (AECC), National Cancer Institute (P30-CA196521), Samuel Waxman Cancer Research Foundation, Spanish National Health Institute (SAF2016-76390) and the Generalitat de Catalunya/AGAUR (SGR-1162 and SGR-1358). JB has received grant support from Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII) (PI14/00962), AECC, AGA UR (SGR-605), WCR (AICR) 16-0026, and Spanish Health Ministry (Plan Estrategico Nacional
contra la Hepatitis C). Centro de Investigacion Biomedica en Red de Enfermedades Hepaticas y Digestivas is funded by ISCIII. RP and AM are funded by AECC and EC. ST, RM, LB and JC are supported by MINECO (BES-2014-068300), Río
Hortega (ISCIII-SEOM), Beatriu de Pinós (AGAUR) and Miguel Servet (ISCIIICP13/00160) grants, respectively. AV is supported by the US Department of Defense (CA150272P3), the Tisch Cancer Institute, and the American Association
for the Study of Liver Diseases Foundation (AASLDF) Alan Hofmann Clinical and Translational Award.

COI:  JML, JB, VM and AEC received research support and consultancy fees from Bayer. AV and SS received consultancy fees from Bayer. CP and GM are employees of Bayer HealthCare Pharmaceuticals.

Randomization:  yes

Blinding:  yes

Dropout Rate/ITT-Analysis:  -

Notes:  
Subgroup analysis of STORM phase 3 trial. No classical RCT but also no classical prognostic study type. Therefore the intervention (Sorafenib) isn't in line with the PICO question (intervention BCLC, TNM, Okuda, ...) and the relevance for the PICO question from methodological point of view unclear.
Pinyol, R. et al. Molecular predictors of prevention of recurrence in HCC with sorafenib as adjuvant treatment and prognostic factors in the phase 3 STORM trial. Gut. . . 2018
Population Intervention - Comparison Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  2

Study type:  Subgroup of Randomized controlled trial

Number of Patient:  202 collected samples, 188 were suitable for the study (hereinafter, BIOSTORM cohort) used were Formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded (FFPE) tissue blocks from patients with HCC. (Sorafenib n= 83, Placebo n=105).

Recruitung Phase:  STORM trial - 2008 and 2010

Inclusion Criteria:  

Exclusion Criteria:  Patients who had undergone less than one treatment cycle (4 weeks) were excluded from the predictive biomarker analysis (sorafenib: n=9 out of 83; placebo: n=6 out of 105).
Intervention:  Sorafenib

Comparison:  Placebo
Primary:  Identify biomarkers predicting sorafenib efficacy in preventing HCC recurrence in terms of recurrence-free survival (RFS).
RFS was defined as the time from randomisation to the first documented disease recurrence by independent radiological assessment or death by any cause, whichever happened first.

Secondary:  Define prognostic biomarkers of RFS and/or validate those previously reported.

Results:   None of the biomarkers tested (related to angiogenesis and proliferation) or previously proposed gene signatures, or mutations predicted sorafenib benefit or recurrence. A newly generated 146-gene signature identifying 30% of patients captured benefit to sorafenib in terms of RFS (p of interaction=0.04). These sorafenib RFS responders were significantly enriched in CD4+ T, B and cytolytic natural killer cells, and lacked activated adaptive immune components. Hepatocytic pERK (HR=2.41; p=0.012) and microvascular invasion (HR=2.09; p=0.017) were independent prognostic factors.

Author's Conclusion:  Overall, our biomarker BIOSTORM study (A) established lack of predictive value of sorafenib response for previously reported
molecular biomarkers, (B) generated a predictive 146-gene signature to discriminate patients where sorafenib would
prevent recurrence after resection, (C) established pERK and microvascular invasion as independent prognostic tools to identify recurrences in patients resected from early HCC tumours, and (D) did not validate previously reported signatures associated with recurrence. For any of these biomarkers to be used as surrogates of efficacy of sorafenib recurrence prevention, a validation study using an independent cohort and conducted by independent investigators would be required.
Methodical Notes

OXFORD (2011) Appraisal Sheet: Prognostic Studies: 10 Bewertung(en)
Funding Sources:  "There is no grant or other financial support for this study"

COI:  "The authors declare no conflict of interests."

Randomization:  -.

Blinding:  -

Dropout Rate/ITT-Analysis:  -

Notes:  Evidence level 2: INception cohort study
Outcome criteria were not subjective to blinding
Chan, A. C. et al. Evaluation of the seventh edition of the American Joint Committee on Cancer tumour-node-metastasis (TNM) staging system for patients undergoing curative resection of hepatocellular carcinoma: implications for the development of a refined staging system. HPB (Oxford). 15. 439-48. 2013
Population Intervention Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  2

Study type:  Retrospective Prognostic study

Number of Patient:  516

Recruitung Phase:  1995-2004

Inclusion Criteria:  Positive for HCV RNA for at least 2 time points with a>6 month interval, had no evidence of HBV infection, had no other potential causes of chronic liver disease (i.e. alcohol consumption<80 g="" day="" no="" history="" of="" hepatotoxic="" drug="" use="" and="" negativetests="" for="" autoimmune="" hepatitis="" primary="" biliary="" cirrhosis="" hemochromatosis="" and="" wilson="" s="" disease="" had="" a="" follow-upperiod="">3 years, had no evidence of HCC at study entryand for at least 3 years from the start of the follow-up per-iod, had no antiviral therapy involving interferon and/ or ribavirin, had ALT measurements taken more than twice annually and had ALT values <40 iu="" l="" br="">
Exclusion Criteria:  see inclusion
Intervention:  FIB4 index: The FIB-4 index was calculated at the start of follow-upusing the following formula: FIB-4 index=AST [IU/L] X age [years]/platelet count [109/L] X ALT [IU/L]. atients were grouped according to theirFIB-4 index score as follows:≤2.0 (n=226),>2.0 and≤4.0 (n=169), and>4.0 (n=121)
FIB-4 and AFP composite score: We established a new scoring system that combines the FIB-4 index and AFP. AFP was measured in 477 patients at the start of follow-up period. AFP levels categorized as ≤5.0 ng/mL,>5.0 and ≤10.0 ng/mL,and>10.0 ng/mL were scored as 1, 2 and 3, respectively.The FIB-4 index, categorized as ≤2.0,>2.0 and ≤4.0, and>4.0, were scored as 1, 2 and 3, respectively. The totalscore was the sum of the FIB-4 index and AFP scores.

Comparison:  -
Primary:  HCC

Secondary:  -

Results:  Population: Median age was 66 years, Men (55.8%). The median FIB-4 index and serum AFP levels were 2.2 and 3.2 ng/mL. The median follow-up period was 11.3 years. HCC developed in 60 of 516 patients (11.6%). The incidence rate of HCC at 5 and 10 years were 2.6% and 17.6%.
Results: Factors associated with the incidence of hepatocarcinogenesis Factors that were significantly associated with the incidence of HCC in the multivariate analysis were FIB-4 index>2.0 HR 7.690 (2.636,–22.438;P<0.001) and FIB-4 index>4.0 (HR, 8.991 (3.088–26.178;P<0.001), AFP>5 ng/mL (HR, 2.742 (1.497–5.023;P<0.001 and="" afp="">10 ng/mL (HR,4.915 (2.353–10.267;P<0.001) and total bili-rubin>1.2 mg/dL (HR, 2.142 1.115–4.117;P=0.022).
Incidence of hepatocarcinogenesis based on the FIB-4 index and AFP: The FIB-4 index>2.0 and≤4.0 group had a significantlyhigher risk than the FIB-4 index≤2.0 group (P<0.001). The group with AFP>10.0 ng/mLwas at the highest risk for HCC development.
Relationship between the FIB-4 index and AF: There were no significant correlation between the FIB-4index and AFP based on Spearman’s rank correlation.
Incidence of hepatocarcinogenesis based on the combinedFIB-4 index and AFP score: The incidence rate of HCC increased as the score increased (2vs3, P<0.001; 3vs4 points, P=0.070; 4vs5 points, P=0.011; and 5vs6 points;P=0.270). This scoringsystem reflected patient survival well.

Author's Conclusion:  "A scoring system for hepatocarcinogenesisthat combines the FIB-4 index and AFP predicted patientoutcomes with excellent discriminative ability. The FIB-4index is strongly associated with the risk of HCC in HCVcarriers with normal ALT levels."
Methodical Notes

Funding Sources:  This work was supported by grants from Assistance Publique-Hopitaux de Paris

COI:  none stated.

Randomization:  -

Blinding:  All CT-scans were reviewed by two authors blinded to the clinical data:

Dropout Rate/ITT-Analysis:  24 patients (3.5%) were lost to follow-up, as a consequence of a move to another country.

Notes:  Evidence level 3: Cohort study or control arm of randomized trial.
Chevret, S. et al. A new prognostic classification for predicting survival in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma. Groupe d'Etude et de Traitement du Carcinome Hepatocellulaire. J Hepatol. 31. 133-41. 1999
Population Intervention Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  3

Study type:  Prospective Prognostic study, F,BE,CA

Number of Patient:  761

Recruitung Phase:  1990-1992

Inclusion Criteria:  HCC paitents in 24 centers in France, Belgium and Canada.

Diagnosis was confirmed by either histology, cytology, or the association of cirrhosis and liver tumor as observed at ultrasonography
(US) or computed tomography scan (CT-scan).


Exclusion Criteria:  except 18 patients with liver transplantation who were excluded.
Intervention:  Aim: Classification for prediction of survival in HCC patients.
Predictors: Karnofsky index, Cirrhosis, serum bilirubin, albumin, phosphatase, prothrombin activity, alpha fetoprotein, US tumor type (uninodular, multinodular, diffuse, heterogeneous parenchyma), portal obstruction.

Comparison:  -
Primary:  Survival

Secondary:  -

Results:  Population: 671 (88%) of the 761 patients were male and the median age was 64 (range 24-99). Cirrhosis was observed in 545 of the 598 patients with liver biopsy, and clinically presumed in 67 additional patients. Of the 612 patients with cirrhosis, 256 (42%) were classified in Child-Pugh class A, 220 (36%) in class B, and 136 (22%) in class C.
Results: Overall survival: The overall survival rate was 30.9% at 1 year , 18.8% at 2 years, and 13.2% at 3 years. Cause of death, reported in 333 deceased patients (80%), was mostly liver failure (185 deaths), gastrointestinal hemorrhage (60 deaths) and/or sepsis (24 deaths).
Prognostic factors 5 were selected at the 0.0001 level: Karnofsky index 50 pmoUl RR=2.1, (1.7-2.6), serum alkaline phosphatase at least twice the upper limit of normal range RR 1.6, (1.3-2.0), serum alpha-fetoprotein >35 pg/l RR=1.7, (l.4,2.1) and US
portal obstruction RR=1.3,95% (1.1,1.7). Three risk groups with different l year
survival rates (72%, 34%, 7%) were derived, and independently validated in the test sample (79%, 31%, 4%).

Author's Conclusion:  This classification could be useful in the assessment of prognosis from homogeneous groups of patients with respect to their expected outcome.
Methodical Notes

Funding Sources:  see text

COI:  see text

Randomization:  n.s.

Blinding:  n.s.

Dropout Rate/ITT-Analysis:  -

Notes:  Cohort study or control arm of randomized trial.

Note: Significance of the results unclear, because the results are collected by "visual inspection" of curves.
Johnson, P. J. et al. Assessment of liver function in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma: a new evidence-based approach-the ALBI grade. J Clin Oncol. 33. 550-8. 2015
Population Intervention Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  3

Study type:  Multicenter prognostic study

Number of Patient:  Japan: 2.599 patients from five centers (etiology was predominantly HCV)
China: 1.112 patients (the etiology was predominantly hepatitis B virus)
Europa: Spain: 843 patients (etiology was predominantly HCV or alcohol abuse).
Europe: UK (Birmingham and Newcastle) 1.356 patients (various etiologies).
United States (Boston): 509 patients (predominantly HCV or alcohol abuse).

We had access to a data set including 1,132 patients receiving sorafenib for unresectable advanced HCC within the control groups of two international clinical trials. Of the 1,028 patients with complete data, 96% were classified as C-P grade A.

501 consecutive patients with cirrhosis but no HCC. The intent of this cohort is to provide evidence that the ALBI model is an actual measure of liver function, rather than, in some surrogate manner, a measure of tumor stage.

Recruitung Phase:  Sie paper.
Recruition: data from major HCC centers and from international HCC clinical trials. The centers were chosen to ensure the inclusion of patients of all disease stages and representative of a broad range of etiologies and geographical regions.

Inclusion Criteria:  The patients from clinical trials all had advanced disease and were treated with the current standard of care, sorafenib.

Exclusion Criteria:  Patients undergoing liver transplantation (n= 125 and n = 168 in Spain and United Kingdom, (n 63 in Boston) were excluded, respectively.
Intervention:  - prognostic factors for the future model were undertaken on the entire Japanese cohort because this was the largest and most complete data set. The entire Japanese cohort (n = 2,599) was then randomly split into two groups, the training (n = 1,313) and validation sets (n =1,286).

- The discriminatory performance of the ALBI model and C-P grade was analysed for each of the Japanese training and validation sets and for the European, Chinese, and US cohorts.

Comparison:  
Primary:  Survival was measured from the date of diagnosis (first presentation with
HCC) to date of death or last follow-up.

Secondary:  

Results:  Survival:
Japanese patients had the highest median survival at 47.2 months, followed by the United States, Europe, and China at 18.6, 17.8, and 7.2 months (including patients undergoing liver transplantation), respectively.

Visual inspection of the resulting KM curves showed equally good discrimination between the three
ALBI prognostic groups and the C-P grade. This is reflected by the Harrell’s C and Somers’ D scores, which were similar.
Applying the model to the other cohorts, visual inspection of the curves again indicated that the discrimination between the three ALBI groups was as good as that of the C-P grade.

Author's Conclusion:  The ALBI grade offers a simple, evidence-based, objective, and discriminatory method of assessing liver function in HCC that has been extensively tested in an international setting. This new model eliminates the need for subjective variables such as ascites and encephalopathy, a requirement in the conventional C-P grade.
Methodical Notes

Funding Sources:  not stated

COI:  "The authors declare that they have no financial conflict of interest."

Randomization:  not randomized.

Blinding:  not blinded.

Dropout Rate/ITT-Analysis:  Not described.

Notes:  Evidence level 3: Cohort study or control arm of randomized trial.
Kitai, S. et al. Validation of a new prognostic staging system for hepatocellular carcinoma: a comparison of the biomarker-combined Japan Integrated Staging Score, the conventional Japan Integrated Staging Score and the BALAD Score. Oncology. 75 Suppl 1. 83-90. 2008
Population Intervention Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  3

Study type:  Retrospective prognostic study

Number of Patient:  1173

Recruitung Phase:  1990-2002

Inclusion Criteria:  4525 Consecutive HCC patients, diagnosed at 5 Japan Center; 1173 fulfilling the following criteria: several serum liver function tests (albumin, bilirubin, prothrombin time, ammonia and transaminase, etc.) and the 3 tumor markers (AFP, AFP-L3 and DCP) were measured at the time of diagnosis. Diagnosis of HCC based on histological or reliable clinical criteria fulfilling the following conditions: a compatible clinical background (association with liver cirrhosis or viral hepatitis) with typical imaging findings and a rising trend of the three tumor markers. Typical imaging findings include a high-density mass in the arterial phase dynamic CT with a low-density mass in the portal phase dynamic CT or MRI. A liver biopsy was performed in cases that did not show typical imaging findings or an increase in any tumor markers.

Exclusion Criteria:  -
Intervention:  Score for tumor staging:
c-JIS Score(summation of the Child-Turcotte-Pugh stage score and the TNM stages by the Liver Cancer Study Group of Japan (LCSGJ)
bm-JIS Score (c-JIS score and the values of the three tumor markers AFP, AFP-L3 and DCP.)



Comparison:  BALAD Score
Primary:  Overall survival.

Secondary:  -

Results:  Population:1,173 patients; median age 68 years; predominantly males (70.9%). Most frequent cause of HCC was an HCV infection (74.5%). 70.8% of the patients were classified as Child-Pugh stage A. Accordingly, radical treatments were performed in the majority of patients (28.9%).
Results:
These three staging systems effectively predicted the patient survival. When accounting for the best prognostic sub-group of each staging systems (i.e. score of 0), there were significant differences between the bm-JIS score and the
BALAD score and, likewise, between the c-JIS score and the BALAD score. The likelihood ratio Chi 2 test showed the highest value (370.564) and the Akaike information criterion value (3981.440) was lowest in the bm-JIS score.

Author's Conclusion:  "In conclusion, the bm-JIS scoring system showed better stratification ability than the BALAD score and the c-JIS score. Therefore, the residual liver function, the grade of cancer and these three tumor markers should be taken into account in a clinical staging system in order to more accurately predict the prognosis of patients with HCC."
Methodical Notes

Funding Sources:  Not stated

COI:  Not stated

Randomization:  -

Blinding:  No blinding was performed.

Dropout Rate/ITT-Analysis:  No description.

Notes:  Evidence level 3: Cohort study or control arm of randomized trial.
No description of blinding or loss to follow-up. Short follow-up (33 weeks).
Leung, T. W. et al. Construction of the Chinese University Prognostic Index for hepatocellular carcinoma and comparison with the TNM staging system, the Okuda staging system, and the Cancer of the Liver Italian Program staging system: a study based on 926 patients. Cancer. 94. 1760-9. 2002
Population Intervention Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  3

Study type:  Prospective prognostic study.

Number of Patient:  926

Recruitung Phase:  1996-2002

Inclusion Criteria:  All consecutive adult patients (age ≥ 18 years) who were diagnosed with HCC and registered in the Joint Hepatoma Clinic at the Prince of Wales Hospital from
1996 to 1998 were included in this study. 926 patients with complete survival data and a confirmed diagnosis.
Patients were diagnosed with HCC on the basis of either histologic examination of
tumor tissue or serum AFP ≥ 500 ng/mL with radiologic evidence of space-occupying lesion(s) in the liver. Survival was measured from the date of diagnosis to the date of death or last contact for surviving patients. The study population was censored on September 30, 1999. The study sample was split randomly once into two sets: a training set (75% of the population) and a confirmatory set (25% of the population). The training set was used to construct the new CUPI, and the confirmatory set was used to validate the index.

Exclusion Criteria:  11% of these patients (109 of 1035 patients) were excluded due to incomplete survival data, but they had no systemic differences compared with the study cohort.
Intervention:  Aim: Construct a new prognostic index for patients with HCC, the Chinese University Prognostic Index (CUPI), and to compare it with existing staging systems in terms of their ability to classify patients into different risk groups.
Prognostic factor: CUPI: The CUPI score for an individual patient was the sum of the weights of the relevant prognostic factors.
"The CUPI was constructed by adding the following factors into the TNM staging
system: total bilirubin, ascites, alkaline phosphatase, alpha fetoprotein, and asymptomatic disease on presentation"
The probability of a patient surviving for 3 months was estimated by using the CUPI in a logistic regression model. The high-risk group was defined as patients with a probability > 70% of dying within 3 months. Patients with a probability < 30% of dying within 3 months were classified as the low-risk group, and the intermediate-risk group had a probability between 30% and 70% of dying within 3 months.

Comparison:  Othe staging systems: TNM, Okuda
Primary:  Survival.

Secondary:  -

Results:  Population: There were 769 male patients and 157 female patients
in the study cohort with a mean age of 58.5 years (range, 22–88 years). Positive hepatitis B and C serology was found in 79% and 3.3% of male and female
patients, respectively. The average proportion of missing data was 1.9% for the 19 study variables, and the missing data were random. All patients in the sample population were ethnic Chinese.
Results: Prognostic factores TNM staging was a highly significant predictor (P = 0.0001) for survival. According to the likelihood test on the two nested models (Model 1 and Model 2), the addition of asymptomatic disease on presentation, AFP, total bilirubin (TB), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), and as(cites to TNM staging significantly improved the estimation (P= 0.00001).
Prognostic Index
The difference in survival among different risk groups classified by the CUPI (P = 0.00001), the TNM staging system (P = 0.00001), the Okuda staging system
(P = 0.00001), and the CLIP score (P = 0.00001) were highly significant.
However, patients identified with Okuda Stage I and II disease were not significantly different with regard to survival (P = 0.27). Unlike the two other staging systems, the CUPI was highly significant during during
the whole period of follow-up.
With the goodness- of-fit test, it was found that the CUPI (P = 0.001) was more predictive of survival compared with the CLIP prognostic score (P = 0.001).

Author's Conclusion:  "In the study population of patients with mainly hepatitis B-associated HCC, the CUPI was more discriminant than the TNM staging system, the Okuda staging systems, or the CLIP prognostic score in classifying patients into different risk groups and was better at predicting survival. The CUPI needs to be validated by different cohorts of patients before it can be recommended for general use."
Methodical Notes

Funding Sources:  Supported by National Institutes of Health Grant CA864000 (Great Lakes New England Clinical Epidemiology Center of the Early Detection Research Network) (J. A. M.) and Grant DK064909 (J. A. M.).

COI:  Nothing to report.

Randomization:  -

Blinding:  -

Dropout Rate/ITT-Analysis:  -

Notes:  Cohort study or control arm of randomized trial
Marrero, J. A. et al. Prognosis of hepatocellular carcinoma: comparison of 7 staging systems in an American cohort. Hepatology. 41. 707-16. 2005
Population Intervention Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  3

Study type:  Prognostic, prospective study.

Number of Patient:  Consecutive patients with HCC. Diagnosis of HCC was based on histology in 192 patients and on nonhistological criteria in 52 patients. Tumor staging was performed in 209 patients who had chest CT.

Recruitung Phase:  January 1, 2000, and December 31, 2003. Follow-up was censored on May 31, 2004.

Inclusion Criteria:  HCC diagnosis based on histology or on nonhistological criteria.

Exclusion Criteria:  -
Intervention:  UNOS-modified tumor node metastasis (TNM),
Barcelona Clinic Liver Cancer (BCLC),
Cancer of Liver Italian Program (CLIP),
Japanese Integrated System (JIS),
Groupe d’Etude de Traitement du Carcinoma Hepatocellulaire (GRETCH),
Chinese University Prognostic Index (CUPI),
Okuda staging system.

Comparison:  see intervention
Primary:  Survival.

Secondary:  -

Results:  Survival:
The overall median survival of the entire cohort was 16.4 months (95% CI 12.9-19.8 mo) and the 1- and 3-year probability of survival was 58% and 29%,respectively.

Baseline predictors of survival:

After controlling for differences in baseline factors and MELD (to also control for hepatic function), a significantly better survival persisted among the patients who received treatment (those treated had a median survival of 13.2 mo vs. 2.8 mo in those untreated; P < .0001).
Patients who underwent liver transplantation had the best survival.
Cox regression analysis identified performance status (P < .0001), MELD score (P = .001), maximum tumor diameter (P = .001), and portal vein thrombosis (P=.001) as independent baseline predictors of survival for the entire cohort of HCC patients. Performance status of 0 and 1 were protective with hazard ratios of 0.07 (95% CI 0.02-0.16) and 0.46 (95% CI 0.31-0.69), respectively.

Staging system and survival:
TNM (stages II and III), JIS (stages 1, 2, and 3), CLIP (stages 1, 2, and 3), and GRETCH (stages B and C) systems had poor stratification of survival at the intermediate stages, while the BCLC, Okuda, and CUPI systems had a better stratification of survival across all stages.
The BCLC system had:
- the highest homogeneity (LR x2 76.8), indicating small differences in survival among patients in the same stages.
- the highest discriminatory score (liner trend x2 28.7) compared with other systems.
- the best monotonicity of gradient based on the LR x2 and linear trend x2.
- the lowest Akaike information criterion,
indicating that the model containing the BCLC system was the most informative when explaining the survival of HCC patients
The BCLC was the only staging system that had a significant impact on theCox survival model when it was removed from the model containing all other staging systems (Log likelihood903.1; LR x2 42.7;P <.0001)

Author's Conclusion:  In conclusion, our study shows that measures of hepatic function (MELD score), performance status, tumor characteristics (size and presence of portal vein thrombosis), and the effect of treatment are predictors of survival in cirrhotic patients with HCC.We show that among the seven prognostic staging systems available for HCC, the BCLC system provided the best independent prediction of survival. The superior performance of BCLC may be related to the fact that it includes the same characteristics that had been identified as independent predictive variables in our cohort. Our results should be confirmed in a larger multicenter cohort to study the effect of multiple etiologies, ethnicity, and the effect of various treatments on overall survival. A consensus in prognostic staging for HCC is urgently needed to assure progress in the development of biomarkers for early detection and novel therapies.
Methodical Notes

Funding Sources:  "DJP is supported by the National Institute for Health Research (NIHR) and has received grant funding from Action Against Cancer and the Imperial NIHR Biomedical Research Centre (BRC). This work was funded in part by the Academy of Medical
Sciences (Grant nr. SGL013/1021) awarded to DJP. DB is supported the Berta-Ottenstein-Programme, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg"

COI:  "The authors who have taken part in this study declared that they do not have anything to disclose regarding funding or conflict of interest with respect to this manuscript."

Randomization:  -

Blinding:  -

Dropout Rate/ITT-Analysis:  -

Notes:  Evidence level 2: Inception cohort study
Pinato, D. J. et al. The ALBI grade provides objective hepatic reserve estimation across each BCLC stage of hepatocellular carcinoma. J Hepatol. 66. 338-346. 2017
Population Intervention Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  2

Study type:  Retrospective diagnostic study, mutlicentric (USA, Asia, Europe)


Number of Patient:  2426

Recruitung Phase:  

Inclusion Criteria:  Aim: Validation of grading HCC by ALBI grade.
Inclusion:Consecutively recruited patients diagnosed with HCC either on imaging or by histologic criteria. The patient population considered for this study was accrued aspart of routine clinical care and was not selected amongst clinical trial participants.


Exclusion Criteria:  Patients who underwent liver transplantation as primary therapy for HCC were excluded.
Intervention:  ALBI grade: based solely on albumin and bilirubin, as alternative to MELD.
The ALBI grade was calculated using the following equation: linear predictor = (log10 bilirubin lmol/L x 0.66) + (albumin g/L x -0.085). The continuous linear predictor was further categorised into three different grades for prognostic stratification purposes: grade 1 (less than -2.60), grade 2 (between -2.60 and -1.39) and grade 3 (above -1.39).

Comparison:  -
Primary:  Overall survival (OS). The primary clinical endpoint of the study was overall survival (OS), calculated from the date of initiation of treatment (surgery, first chemoembolization or initiation of sorafenib) to the date of death and/or last follow-up. Due to the significant heterogeneity in the study population, survival analysis was stratified by treatment modality to include patients treated with curative resection and palliative patients amenable to locoregional therapies and systemic treatment with sorafenib.

Secondary:  

Results:  Population: NO overall demographics for age, sex. Instead each HCC intervention is regarded individually. F.e locoregional therapy cohort in the USA, in Europe, Asia. Age median 63-72. Male participants 71-80%.
Results:
Median OS was 54 months for the surgical cohort, whilst in the LRT cohorts survival ranged between 10 and 36 months, being worse in the LRT-USA cohort. Patient in the sorafenib cohort had a median OS of 9 months.
ALBI as predictor for OS: "Analysis of survival by primary treatment modality confirmed the ALBI grade as a significant predictor of patient OS after surgical resection (p <0.001), transarterial chemoembolization (p <0.001) and sorafenib (p <0.001). Stratification by Barcelona Clinic Liver Cancer stage confirmed the independent prognostic value of the ALBI across the diverse stages of the disease, geographical regions of origin and time of recruitment to the study (p <0.001)."

Author's Conclusion:  "In summary, this study has validated the ALBI grade as an objective, inexpensive, readily available stratifying biomarker of poor liver reserve in HCC. Consideration should be given to its prospective validation in future clinical studies to facilitate its use in routine clinical practice."
Methodical Notes

Funding Sources:  "The study was supported by the University of Alberta Liver Transplant Program Academic Fund and the Arte`res Foundation."

COI:  "Potential conflict of interest: Prof. Dufour advises Bristol-Myers Squibb, Novartis, AbbVie, and Gilead. He received grants from Bayer."

Randomization:  -

Blinding:  -

Dropout Rate/ITT-Analysis:  Dropout rates and cause were part of the outcomes. ITT analysis was performed.

Notes:  Evidence level 2: Inception cohort study
Toso, C. et al. Total tumor volume and alpha-fetoprotein for selection of transplant candidates with hepatocellular carcinoma: A prospective validation. Hepatology. 62. 158-65. 2015
Population Intervention Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  2

Study type:  Prospective prognostic study, multicentric

Number of Patient:  233

Recruitung Phase:  2007-2013

Inclusion Criteria:  Webbased multicentric database, which prospectively includes data on patients with HCC listed for LT.
TTV/AFP criteria were used for candidate selection. The composite criteria allowed access to listing for transplantation to patients with TTV ≤115 cm3 and AFP ≤400 ng/mL, in the absence of EHD and HCC MVI on radiology. All patients beyond the TTV/AFP cutoffs were eligible for listing if they could be downstaged to within criteria according to modified Response Evaluation Criteria in Solid Tumors and stabilized within the criteria for a minimum of 3 months.

Exclusion Criteria:  Patients with AFP >400 ng/ mL were excluded,
Intervention:  TTV/AFP criteria for grading. Total tumor volumen, alpha fetoprotein.

Comparison:  Milan criteria. "Patients with AFP >400 ng/ mL were excluded, and, as such, the Milan group was modified to include only patients with AFP <400 ng="" ml="" these="" patients="" were="" compared="" to="" patients="" beyond="" milan="" but="" within="" ttv="" afp="" td="">
Primary:  date and cause of waitlist dropout, post-transplant recurrence, and death.

Secondary:  -

Results:  Population: 233 patients with HCC were listed for LT; 43 females and 190 males, with a mean age of 57.1 6 6.4 years. Cirrhosis was most often related to HCV, HBV, and alcohol. The mean calculated MELD score was 9.9 6 4.9. At the time of listing, 195 patients were within Milan criteria and 38 beyond Milan, but within TTV/AFP. Most patients had a limited number of small HCCs; the median AFP was 11 ± 25 ng/mL.
Follow-up: The average follow-up from listing was 33.9± 24.9 months. Risk of dropout was higher for patientsbeyond Milan, but within TTV/AFP (16 of 38; 42.1%), than for those within Milan (49 of 195 [25.1%]; P 5 0.033).
Survival: Intent-to-treat survival from listing was lower in patients beyond Milan (53.8% vs. 71.6% at 4 years; P < 0.001). After a median waiting time
of 8 months, 166 patients were transplanted, 134 within Milan criteria, and 32 beyond Milan but within TTV/AFP.
Reuccurence: Transplanted patients demonstrated acceptable and similar recurrence rates (4.5% vs. 9.4%; P 5 0.138) and post-transplant survivals (78.7% vs. 74.6% at 4 years; P 5 0.932).

Author's Conclusion:  Based on the present prospective study, HCC LT candidate selection could be expanded to the TTV (≤115 cm3)/AFP (≤400 ng/mL) criteria in centers with at least 8- month waiting time. An increased risk of dropout on the waiting list can be expected, but with equivalent and satisfactory post-transplant survival.
Methodical Notes

Funding Sources:  n.s.

COI:  n.s.

Randomization:  -

Blinding:  -

Dropout Rate/ITT-Analysis:  -

Notes:  Prognostic cohort study or control arm of randomized trial.
Vitale, A. et al. Validation of the BCLC prognostic system in surgical hepatocellular cancer patients. Transplant Proc. 41. 1260-3. 2009
Population Intervention Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  3

Study type:  Prognostic study.

Number of Patient:  715 HCC patients were prospectively enrolled.

Recruitung Phase:  2000 –2007. Follow-up data were collected until December 31, 2007.

Inclusion Criteria:  HCC diagnosis according to EASL criteria or histology and Child A or B score in patients undergoing surgery.

Exclusion Criteria:  -
Intervention:  BCLC

Comparison:  Okuda, CLIP (both part of the prospective observational study), and retrospective applied analysis for UNOS and JIS.
Primary:  Survival in a surgical population.

Secondary:  -

Results:  Prognostic Ability of Staging Systems in Surgical Patients:
BCLC classification is the only staging system showing a significant discriminative ability in terms of survival prediction , namely calculated 3-year survivals of 81%, 56%, and 44% for BCLC stages A, B, and C, respectively (P = .03).

Prognostic Role of Surgery in Different BCLC Stages:
Operative treatment was a significant predictor of survival among all evaluated BCLC stages. In fact, the 3-year survival rates of surgical versus nonsurgical patients in various stages were: 81% versus 52% in BCLC A stage (P =.02); 56% versus 13% in BCLC B stage (P = .03); and 44% versus 0% in BCLC C stage (P= .02).

Author's Conclusion:  In conclusion, this study confirmed the potential usefulness of the BCLC staging system to predict survival of HCC patients and to design randomized trials for specific therapeutic subgroups of patients undergoing surgery. However, the present analysis confirmed the prognostic benefit of surgery in each BCLC stage.
Methodical Notes

Funding Sources:  not stated

COI:  The authors disclose no conflicts.

Randomization:  "Among the 3856 patients, 1968 (51.04%) and 1888 patients (48.96%) were assigned randomly to the training set and the test set."

Blinding:  no blinding

Dropout Rate/ITT-Analysis:  not stated

Notes:  Cohort study or control arm of a randomized trial.
Yau, T. et al. Development of Hong Kong Liver Cancer staging system with treatment stratification for patients with hepatocellular carcinoma. Gastroenterology. 146. 1691-700.e3. 2014
Population Intervention Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  3

Study type:  Retrospective prognostic study

Number of Patient:  3856

Recruitung Phase:  1995-2008

Inclusion Criteria:  HCC patients at Queen Mary Hospital in Hong Kong. HCC diagnosis was confirmed either by histology or cytology, increased a-fetoprotein level (≥400 ng/mL), or bytypical radiologic appearance. Staging mostly by contrast computed tomography scan.

Exclusion Criteria:  9 pediatric patients and 63 patients who died or were censored within 7 days after the first consultation and received no treatment were excluded.
Intervention:  Prognostic Classification Scheme Hong Kong Liver Cancer (HKLC)

Comparison:  Barcelona Clinic Liver Cancer (BCLC)
Primary:  Survival

Secondary:  

Results:  Population: 3856 eligible adult HCC; Median age at presentation was 58years (range, 18–97 y). Men (81.90%); predominantly hepatitis B carriers(80%); 73% had underlying Child–Pugh class A liver function, 21% had class B liver function, and only 6% had class C liver function. About 59% of patients had a tumor size >5 cm or had diffuse-type tumor, and 48% of patients had a solitary tumor. Extrahepatic vascular involvement or metastasis was present in 20.85% of patients. Median follow-up time was 11.68 months (range, 0.03–182.21 mo).
Among the 3856 patients, 1968 (51.04%) and 1888 patients (48.96%) were assigned randomly to the training set and the test set.
Results:
HKLC system had significantly better ability than the BCLC system to distinguish between patients with specific overall survival times (area under the receiver operating characteristic curve values, approximately
0.84 vs 0.80; concordance index, 0.74 vs 0.70).
HKLC identified subsets of BCLC intermediate- and advanced-stage patients for more aggressive treatments than what were recommended by the BCLC system, which improved survival outcomes. Of BCLC-B patients classified as HKLC-II in our system, the survival benefit of radical therapies, compared with transarterial chemoembolization, was substantial (5-year survival probability, 52.1% vs 18.7%; P < .0001). In BCLC-C patients classified as HKLC-II, the survival benefit of radical
therapies compared with systemic therapy was even more pronounced (5-year survival probability, 48.6% vs 0.0%; P < .0001).

Author's Conclusion:  "In conclusion, this study has established a new prognostic classification scheme, the HKLC staging classification, which may provide better prognostic classification than BCLC staging and may be effective in identifying patients
suitable for more aggressive treatments, hence yielding a better survival outcome."
Methodical Notes

HCC Bridging-Therapie

Schlüsselfrage:

HCC 13 Transplantation - 2
Profitieren Patienten mit HCC inside Milano von Bridging-Therapien?

Inhalt: 5 Literaturstellen
Literaturstelle Evidenzlevel Studientyp
Agopian, V. G. 2017 2 Multicentric cohort/registry, 20 US centers, HCC Transplant Consortium (UMHTC)
Huang, X. 2017 1 Systematic review and Meta-Analysis. 12 studies
Preoperative locoregional therapy on recurrence and survival in HCC.
Kulik, L. 2018 1 Systematic review and meta-analysis.
Effectiveness of LRT in the management of HCC patients on the LT waitlist.
Salem, R. 2016 2 RCT, open-label, singlecenter, investigator initiated phase 2 Prospective
Chemoembolization vs Radioembolization for the Treatment of Hepatocellular Carcinoma.
Sneiders, D. 2018 1 Systematic review and meta-analysis. 14 retrospective studies.
HCC undergoing preliver transplantation TACE.


OXFORD (2011) Appraisal Sheet: Systematic Reviews: 3 Bewertung(en)
Huang, X. et al. Impact of preoperative locoregional therapy on recurrence and patient survival following liver transplantation for hepatocellular carcinoma: a meta-analysis. Scand J Gastroenterol. 52. 143-149. 2017
Evidence level/Study Types P - I - C Outcomes/Results Literature References
Evidence level:  1

Study type:  Systematic review and Meta-Analysis. 12 studies
Preoperative locoregional therapy on recurrence and survival in HCC.
Databases:  PubMed, EMBASE, Google Scholar, the Cochrane Library, the China National Knowledge Infrastructure whole-article database (CNKI), and the VIP Chinese Journals Database

Search period:  Inception-04/2014

Inclusion Criteria:  Study patients who had undergone preoperative locoregional therapy prior to liver transplantation, an intervention with locoregional therapy and a control group, the reporting of survival results, and a sufficiently long follow-up period (e.g., five years). Studies could be designed as randomized control trials (RCTs) or non-RCTs.

Exclusion Criteria:  Reviews and case reports were excluded.
Population:  HCC patients. 12 studies, n=35-200, predominantly US studies.

Intervention:  Preoperative locoregional therapy including TACE, RFA, PEI and combination of these treatments.

Comparison:  No treatment
Primary:  five-year survival and five-year recurrence-free survival

Secondary:  -

Results:  Locoregional therapy and 5-year survival rate :10 studies (n = 1,235). Only one study showed statistical significance; pooled results preoperative locoregional therapy was not associated with a decreased risk of five-year survival (HR = 1.06; 95% CI = 0.82–1.38). In random-effects model HR of 1.04 (95% CI = 0.74–1.45).
Locoregional therapy and 5-year recurrence-free survival rate 6 studies found that preoperative locoregional therapy had no association with five-year recurrence-free survival rates, same was true for pooled results (pooled HR = 1.02, 95% CI = 0.70-1.50.

Author's Conclusion:  Meta-analysis suggests that preoperative locoregional therapy has no association with survival following liver transplantation for HCC. However, the majority of included studies were performed via retrospective analysis and/or examined small numbers of patients at single centers. Therefore, we believe that a multi-center prospective study with a longer follow-up period and more clearly defined parameters would be the best way to study this issue in the future.
Stockland, A.H., et al., Preoperative chemoembolization in patients with hepato- cellular carcinoma undergoing liver transplantation: influence of emergent versus elective procedures on patient survival and tumor recurrence rate. Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol, 2007. 30(5): p. 888-93.
Bharat, A., et al., Pre-Liver Transplantation Locoregional Adjuvant Therapy
for Hepatocellular Carcinoma as a Strategy to Improve Longterm Survival.
Journal of the American College of Surgeons, 2006. 203(4): p. 411–420
Seehofer, D, et al., impact of neoadjuvant TACE on tumor recurrence and patient survival after liver transplantation for HCC: 2613. Transplantation, 2010. 90.
DuBay DA, et al. Radiofrequency ablation of hepatocellular carcinoma as a bridge to liver transplantation. HPB (Oxford), 2011. 13(1): p. 24-32.
Yao, F.Y., et al., The impact of pre-operative loco-regional therapy on outcome
after liver transplantation for hepatocellular carcinoma. Am J Transplant,
2005. 5(4 Pt 1): p. 795-804.
Kim, JM, et al., Effectiveness of Locoregional Therapy Before Living Donor Liver Transplantation in Patients With Hepatocellular Carcinoma Who Meet the Milan Criteria. Transplantation Proceedings, 2012. 44(2): p. 403–408.
Lao, O.B., J. Weissman, and J.D. Perkins, Pre-transplant therapy for hepato-cellular carcinoma is associated with a lower recurrence after liver trans- plantation. Clin Transplant, 2009. 23(6): p. 874-81.
Porrett, P.M., et al., Lack of benefit of pre-transplant locoregional hepatic
therapy for hepatocellular cancer in the current MELD era. Liver Transpl, 2006. 12(4): p. 665-73.
Kim, P.T., et al., Tumor biology and pre-transplant locoregional treatments
determine outcomes in patients with T3 hepatocellular carcinoma undergoing liver transplantation. Clin Transplant, 2013. 27(2): p. 311-8.
S.L., et al., Transarterial chemoembolization for HCC in patients with extensive liver transplantation waiting times. Angiology, 2012. 63(3): p.206-12.
Decaens, T., et al., Impact of pretransplantation transarterial chemo embolization on survival and recurrence after liver transplantation for hepato- cellular carcinoma. Liver Transpl, 2005. 11(7): p. 767-75
Heckman, J.T., et al., Bridging locoregional therapy for hepatocellular carcinoma prior to liver transplantation. Ann Surg Oncol, 2008. 15(11): p. 3169-77.
Methodical Notes
Funding Sources:  "we thank all those persons, organizations and funds that have provided us with any help."

COI:  The authors have declared that no competing interest exists.

Study Quality:  "We used the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale (NOS) to assess the quality of the studies included in our analysis....The studies included in the MA were deemed to have moderate to high overall quality, with all of the included studies ranking ≥5 stars on the modified NOS which meant a relative high quality."

Heterogeneity:  "If the heterogeneity was not obvious, HRs were pooled using a fixed effects model. Otherwise, we used a random effects model to pool the HRs. We also conducted a sensitivity analysis to examine the stability of the pooled results. There was no significant heterogeneity among the studies."

Publication Bias:  "Publication bias was detected using the funnel plot of the meta-analysis results. ..The plots are relatively symmetric, suggesting that there is no significant publication bias in the reports of five-year survival rates."

Notes:  

Kulik, L. et al. Therapies for patients with hepatocellular carcinoma awaiting liver transplantation: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Hepatology. 67. 381-400. 2018
Evidence level/Study Types P - I - C Outcomes/Results Literature References
Evidence level:  1

Study type:  Systematic review and meta-analysis.
Effectiveness of LRT in the management of HCC patients on the LT waitlist.
Databases:  Ovid Medline In-Process & Other Non-Indexed Citations, Ovid MEDLINE, Ovid EMBASE, Ovid Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, and Scopus

Search period:  inception to April 25, 2016.

Inclusion Criteria:  studies that enrolled adults with cirrhosis awaiting LT and treated with bridging or down-staging therapies before transplant. Therapies included TACE,transarterial radioembolization (TARE), ablation, and radiotherapy. We included both comparative and noncomparative studies with no language restrictions.

Exclusion Criteria:  studies with patients enrolled before 1996, case reports, cohorts with fewer than 5 patients, reviews, letters, errata, commentaries, and studies published only as
abstracts.
Population:  Three research questions
1.) Adults with cirrhosis awaiting LT andT1 HCC
2.)Adults with cirrhosis awaiting LT and T2 HCC
3.)Adults with cirrhosis awaiting LT and beyond Milan (T3) HCC
63 studies were included (comparative and non-comparative).

Intervention:  three research questions.
1.) Observation versus any therapy (TACE,TARE, ablation, or radiotherapy)
2.)Transplant alone versus transplant with any bridging therapy (TACE, TARE, ablation, or radiotherapy)
3.) Transplant without down-staging versus transplant following down-staging to
within Milan (T2)

Comparison:  -
Primary:  Waitlist dropout due to progression beyond transplant criteria, post-LT survival,
recurrence.

Secondary:  -

Results:  1.): For adults with T1 HCC and waiting for LT, there were only 2 nonrandomized comparative studies, both with a high risk of bias. In one series, the rate of dropout from all causes at 6 months in T1 HCC patients who underwent LRT was 5.3%, while in the other series of T1 HCC patients who did not receive LRT, the dropout rate at median follow-up of 2.4 years and the progression rate to T2 HCC were 30% and 88%, respectively.
2: For adults with T2 HCC awaiting LT, transplant with any bridging therapy showed a nonsignificant reduction in the risk of waitlist dropout due to progression (relative risk [RR], 0.32; 95%CI, 0.06-1.85; I2 5 0%) and of waitlist dropout from all causes (RR, 0.38; 95% CI, 0.060-2.370; I2 5 85.7%) compared to
no therapy based on three comparative studies. The quality of evidence is very low due to high risk of bias, imprecision, and inconsistency.
There were five comparative studies which reported on posttransplant survival rates and 10 comparative studiesvwhich reported on posttransplant recurrence, and there was no significant difference seen in either of these endpoints.
3.)For adults initially with stage T3 HCC who received LRT, there were three studies reporting on transplant with any downstaging therapy versus no downstaging, and this showed a significant increase in 1-year (two studies, RR, 1.11; 95% CI,1.01-1.23) and 5-year (1 study, RR, 1.17; 95% CI, 1.03-1.32) post-LT survival rates for patients who received LRT. The quality of evidence is very low due to serious risk of bias and imprecision

Author's Conclusion:  "In patients with HCC listed for LT, the use of LRT is associated with a non-significant trend toward improved waitlist and posttransplant outcomes, though there is a high risk of selection bias in the available evidence."
see article, 63 references.
Methodical Notes
Funding Sources:  not stated.

COI:  "Potential conflict of interest: Dr. Kulik advises Bayer."

Study Quality:  Modified Newcastle-Ottawa Scale was used to assess the risk of bias in observational studies. Quality of evidence was evaluated using the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE) methods.
Quality of evidence was rated very low for all outcomes.

Heterogeneity:  "There was significant heterogeneity among the three studies that looked at down-staging for T3 HCC compared to transplant for T3 HCC without downstaging in terms of the comparative group"

Publication Bias:  Not investigated

Notes:  
Publication bias not investigated.

Sneiders, D. et al. Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Posttransplant Hepatic Artery and Biliary Complications in Patients Treated With Transarterial Chemoembolization Before Liver Transplantation. Transplantation. 102. 88-96. 2018
Evidence level/Study Types P - I - C Outcomes/Results Literature References
Evidence level:  1

Study type:  Systematic review and meta-analysis. 14 retrospective studies.
HCC undergoing preliver transplantation TACE.
Databases:  Embase, MEDLINE OvidSP, Web of Science, Google Scholar, and Cochrane

Search period:  Inception - March 2016.

Inclusion Criteria:  Studiey investigating posttransplant complications of the hepatic artery or biliary tract, in patients treated with TACE before deceased or living-donor liver transplantation, compared with liver transplantation recipients who had not
undergone TACE. We included articles describing transarterial embolization or chemoinfusion alone, embolization with drug eluting beads or chemoembolization.

Exclusion Criteria:  Articles describing radioembolization. Case reports, letters, and editorials, pediatric and nonhuman studies.
Population:  14 retrospective observational studies on HCC patients. n=1122 TACE patients.

Intervention:  TACE before liver transplantation

Comparison:  Liver transplantation without prior TACE
Primary:  postoperative hepatic artery

Secondary:  biliary complications

Results:  Hepatic Artery Complications: Posttransplant hepatic artery complications occurred more frequently in TACE recipients (76/837) compared
with non-TACE recipients (145/2294). WWe observed a significant association between preliver transplantation TACE and posttransplantation occurrence of hepatic artery complications, including thrombosis, stenosis, and (pseudo)-
aneurysms (OR, 1.57; 95% CI, 1.09-2.26; P = 0.016; I2 = 0%)
No evidence of an association between pretransplant TACE and posttransplant occurrence of hepatic artery thrombosis, alone, was found (OR, 1.31; 95% CI,
0.74-2.35; I2 = 0%)
Biliary Tract Complications
No strong evidence of a significant association was observed between preliver transplantation TACE and occurrence of biliary tract complications posttransplantation (OR, 1.30; 95% CI, 0.96-1.76; P = 0.087; I2 = 0%)


Author's Conclusion:  "Patients treated with TACE before liver transplantation may be at increased risk for development of hepatic artery complications after liver transplantation."
Casadaban L, et al. Presurgical transarterial chemoembolization does not increase biliary stricture incidence in orthotopic liver transplant patients. Transplant Proc. 2014;46:1413–1419.
Goel A, et al. Hepatic artery and biliary complications in liver transplant recipients undergoing pretransplant transarterial chemoembolization. Liver Transpl. 2014;20:1221–1228.
Kanakadandi V, et al. Chemoembolization therapy of hepatocellular carcinoma prior to liver transplant is associated with the development of post-transplant biliary anastomotic strictures. Hepatology. 2012;56:475A–476A.
Li H, et al. Preoperative transarterial chemoembolization does not increase hepatic artery complications after liver transplantation: a single center 12-year experience. Clin Res Hepatol Gastroenterol.2015;39:451–457.
Lin TS, et al. Intimal dissection of the hepatic artery following transarterial embolization for hepatocellular carcinoma: an intraoperative problem in adult living donor liver transplantation. Liver Transpl.2009;15:1553–1556.
Majno PE, et al. Influence of preoperative transarterial lipiodol chemo-embolization on resection and transplantation for hepatocellular carcinoma in patients with cirrhosis. Ann Surg. 1997;226:688–701.
Mekeel KL, et al. The risk of hepatic arterial complications associated with trans-arterial chemoembolization prior to liver transplantation for hepato-cellular carcinoma. Transplantation. 2010;90(Suppl 1):781.
Panaro F, et al. Hepatic artery complications following liver transplantation. Does preoperative chemoembolization impact the postoperative course? Clin Transplant. 2014;28:598–605.
Pravisani R, et al. Transarterial chemoembolization does not harm the hepatic artery at transplantation. Transplant Int. 2015;28:212.
Ramanathan M, et al. Downstaging or bridging therapy of hepatocellular cancer does not increase incidence of biliary complications after liver trans-plantation. Hepatology. 2015;62:833A.
Richard HM 3rd, et al. Hepatic arterial complications in liver transplant recipients treated with pretransplantation chemoembolization for hepatocellular carcinoma. Radiology. 2000;214:775–779.
Saborido BP, et al. Is transarterial chemoembolization necessary before liver transplantation for hepatocellular carcinoma?Am J Surg. 2005;190:383–387.
Shiani A, et al. Incidence of biliary stricture after transarterial chemoembolization for hepatocellular carcinoma in orthotopic liver transplant patients. Am J Gastroenterol. 2015;110:S907–S908.
Shiani A, et al. Vascular complications after transarterial chemoembolization in orthotopic liver transplant patients.Am J Gastroenterol. 2015;110:S906.
Methodical Notes
Funding Sources:  not stated.

COI:  "The authors declare no conflicts of interest."

Study Quality:  Quality assessment of studies was done by the validated checklist of Downs and Black. Therefore, the quality of all included studies according to GRADE is low to very low.

Heterogeneity:  "Potential heterogeneity between studies was assessed with I2 tests... There was no significant heterogeneity between studies in both analyses."

Publication Bias:  Not investigated.

Notes:  
Publication bias not investigated.

OXFORD (2011) Appraisal Sheet: RCT: 1 Bewertung(en)
Funding Sources:  "This study was supported in part by National Institutes of Health grant CA126809. Also supported by a Medical Scientist Training Program student
(T32GM008152 to A.C.G.) with support for research provided by an Allied
Scientist grant from the Society of Interventional Radiology Foundation.

COI:  "These authors disclose the following: Robert J. Lewandowski, Laura Kulik, and
Riad Salem serve as advisors to BTG International. The remaining authors
disclose no conflicts.

Randomization:  Prospective randomization 1:1 to conventional chemoembolization (cTACE; control arm) or radioembolization (Y90; test arm). Method not described.

Blinding:  No blinding of patients, open label.
CT, MRT Scans (for outcome assesment) were reviewed in a blinded manner by 2
board-certified radiologists.

Dropout Rate/ITT-Analysis:  Intention to treat analysis was performed.

Notes:  
Time to initial treatment different between groups. A lot of censored datasets due to transplants.
Salem, R. et al. Y90 Radioembolization Significantly Prolongs Time to Progression Compared With Chemoembolization in Patients With Hepatocellular Carcinoma. Gastroenterology. 151. 1155-1163.e2. 2016
Population Intervention - Comparison Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  2

Study type:  RCT, open-label, singlecenter, investigator initiated phase 2 Prospective
Chemoembolization vs Radioembolization for the Treatment of Hepatocellular Carcinoma.

Number of Patient:  45 randomized (21 cTACE, 24 Y90)

Recruitung Phase:  2009-2015

Inclusion Criteria:  Image/biopsy-proven HCC by guidelines, unablatable/unresectable disease, no vascular invasion, Child–Pugh A/B, bilirubin level of 2.0 mg/dL or less, and aspartate aminotransferase/alanine aminotransferase 5 times the upper limit of normal or less.

Exclusion Criteria:  Infiltrative/bulk disease (≥70% tumor burden), 50% or more tumor burden with albumin level less than 3 g/dL, cardiac comorbidities, major surgery within the past 4 weeks, or active infection.
Intervention:  cTACE. Chemoembolization was performed with 75 mg/ m2 (maximum, 150 mg) dosing. The drug/lipiodol combination was followed by embolic microspheres.

Comparison:  Y90. Angiography and technetium-99m scintigraphy were used to estimate lung shunting, identify extrahepatic perfusion, and perform coil embolization if necessary. Glass microspheres were used at a 120-Gy dose, with treatment on an outpatient basis.
Primary:  Time to progression (TTP)

Secondary:  safety, rate of response (based on tumor size and necrosis criteria), and Kaplan–Meier survival time.

Results:  Population: n=45 (cTACE 21, Y90 =24). For all 45 patients, the median length of followup evaluation was 17.2 months (range, 1.4–62.1 mo).
Primary: Time to progression The median TTP was significantly longer in the Y90 group: 6.8 months for cTACE vs not reached for Y90 (>26 mo; P ¼ .0012; HR,
0.122; 95% CI, 0.027–0.557; P = .007).
Competing risk analysis: Y90 again showed a significantly reduced hazard of
progression compared with cTACE (subdistribution HR, 0.13; 95% CI, 0.03–0.57; P = .006), with transplant/death as competing events. By IPCW analysis, risk reduction of progression in the Y90 group was more pronounced (HR, 0.071; 95% CI, 0.008–0.645; P = .019).
Secondary outcomes Imaging outcomes:
Primary index lesions (n = 43) were defined in 184 reviewed studies (mean, 4.3 scans/patient), with follow-up imaging available in 42 of 43 patients (98%). WHO
response was 12 of 19 (63%) for cTACE vs 12 of 23 (52%) for Y90 (P = .542), with comparable median times with PR by group (7.3 mo; 95% CI, 3.9–12.6 after cTACE vs 7.6 mo.
Overall survival: KM curves (censored to liver transplantation) showing the median of 17.7 months (95% CI, 8.3–not calculable) and 18.6 months (95% CI, 7.4–32.5) OS for cTACE and Y90, respectively (P = .99)

Author's Conclusion:  "In a randomized phase 2 study of patients with HCC of BCLC stages A or B, we found Y90 radioembolization to provide significantly longer TTP than cTACE. Y90 radioembolization provides better tumor control and could reduce drop-out from
transplant waitlists."
Methodical Notes

NEWCASTLE - OTTAWA Checklist: Cohort: 1 Bewertung(en)
Agopian, V. G. et al. Impact of Pretransplant Bridging Locoregional Therapy for Patients With Hepatocellular Carcinoma Within Milan Criteria Undergoing Liver Transplantation: Analysis of 3601 Patients From the US Multicenter HCC Transplant Consortium. Ann Surg. 266. 525-535. 2017
Evidence level Methodical Notes Patient characteristics Interventions
Evidence level:  2

Study type:  Multicentric cohort/registry, 20 US centers, HCC Transplant Consortium (UMHTC)
Funding sources:  not described.

Conflict of Interests:  The authors report no conflicts of interest.

Randomization:  -

Blinding:  -

Dropout rates:  -
Total no. patients:  3601 with a known pre-LT diagnosis of HCC meeting MC

Recruiting Phase:  2002 to 2013

Inclusion criteria:  Consecutive, adult (≥18 years) HCC patients undergoing LT regardless of tumor size, requirement for MELD exception points, follow-up time, or non- HCC-related death. HCC diagnosis was based on pretransplant radiographic imaging, biopsy, or incidental discovery on explant pathology.

Exclusion criteria:  Patients with cholangiocarcinoma, mixed hepatocellular/ cholangiocarcinoma, fibrolamellar HCC, or hepatoblastoma were excluded.
Interventions:  pre liver transplant locoregional therapy (pre LT LRT)



Comparison:  LT without LRT
Notes:

Author's conclusion:  "Bridging LRT in HCC patients within MC does not improve post-LT survival or HCC recurrence in the majority of patients who fail to achieve cPR. The need for increasing LRT treatments and lack of alphafetoprotein response to LRT independently predict post-LT recurrence, serving as a surrogate for underlying tumor biology which can be utilized for prioritization of HCC LT candidates"
Outcome Measures/results Primary  Recurrence-free survival and post-LT recurrence

Secondary  
Results:  Population: Of 3601 patients in the UMHTC with a known pre-LT diagnosis of HCC meeting MC, 2854 (79.3%) received pre-LT LRT, 747 (20.7%) did not. At a median follow-up time of 46.7 months [IQR 24.2–76.2], 375 patients developed post-LT HCC recurrence (10.4%); median time to recurrence of 17.2 months (IQR 8.5–34.1). At time of last follow-up, 2433 (67.6%) were alive without recurrence, 95 (2.6%) had recurred but were alive, 279 (7.7%) had died of HCC recurrence, and 794 (22.1%) had non-HCC-related mortality.
thermal ablation, 464 (12.9%) received ablation without TACE, 298
(8.3) received both TACE and ablation, and 170 recipients received
Of 3601 HCC LT recipients,
In the LT LRT group 1922 (53.4%) received TACE and not thermal ablation, 464 (12.9%) received ablation without TACE, 298 (8.3) received both TACE and ablation, and 170 recipients received other LRT without TACE or ablation (4.7%).
Comparison LT and Pre-LT LRT
Survival and recurrence:747 LT recipients not receiving LRT, 2854 receiving LRT had similar 1, 3, and 5-year recurrence-free survival (89%, 77%, 68% vs85%, 75%, 68%; P = 0.490) and 5-year post-LT recurrence (11.2% vs 10.1%;
P = 0.474).
Post-LT recurrence: Increasing LRT number [3 LRTs: hazard ratio (HR) 2.1, P < 0.001; 4þ LRTs: HR 2.5, P < 0.001), and unfavorable waitlist alphafetorotein
trend significantly predicted post-LT recurrence, whereas LRT modality did
not. Treated
Stratification by by LRT modality:
no significant differences in the 1, 3, and 5- year RFS.
Complete Pathological response
Treated patients achieving cPR had superior 5-year RFS (72%) and lower post-LT recurrence (HR 0.52, P < 0.001) compared with both untreated patients (69%; P ¼ 0.010; HR 1.0) and treated patients not achieving cPR (67%; P = 0.010; HR 1.31, P = 0.039).

HCC SBRT

Schlüsselfrage:

0_2022 HCC Neu Bestrahlung

Inhalt: 7 Literaturstellen
Literaturstelle Evidenzlevel Studientyp
Brunner, Thomas B 2021 3 Prospective, two-arm, non-randomized, study.
Comito, Tiziana 2022 3 Prospective, single-institution, randomized, controlled, unblinded, parallel-group phase III trial.
Eriguchi, T. 2021 2 Systematic review and META-Analysis of 6 observational studies.
Kim, T. H. 2021 2 Phase III investigator-initiated, randomized, single-center, open-label clinical trial.
Lee, J. 2020 3 Systematic review and META-Analysis of 11 observational studies.
Pan, Y. X. 2020 3 Systematic review and META-Analysis of 10 observational studies (non-randomized).
Rim, C. H. 2019 3 Systematic review and META-Analysis of 32 observational studies (non-randomized).


OXFORD (2011) - AMSTAR 2: Systematic Reviews: 4 Bewertung(en)
Eriguchi, T. et al. Comparison of stereotactic body radiotherapy and radiofrequency ablation for hepatocellular carcinoma: Systematic review and meta-analysis of propensity score studies. Hepatol Res. 51. 813-822. 2021
Evidence level/Study Types P - I - C Outcomes/Results Literature References
Evidence level:  2

Overall confidence in the results of the review:  AMSTAR II critical appraisal tool for systematic reviews:
One critical flaw (items 15), one non-critical flaws (item 10)
Overall quality of evidence: low

Oxford CEBM Levels of Evidence (2011):
Systematic review of observational studies.

Study type:  Systematic review and META-Analysis of 6 observational studies.
Databases:  PubMed, the Cochrane database, EMBASE, and Web of Science.

Search period:  Until October 1, 2020.

Inclusion Criteria:  - studies using propensity score (PS) analysis that compared SBRT and RFA exclusively for HCC, with particular attention to the quality of matching, such as a propensity regarding BCLC staging;
- Articles were published as full reports, brief reports, or conference abstracts, regardless of their primary end‐point. Non‐English reports were excluded from this study;
- matching liver function (CP score or class), performance status, and tumor size, which are the components that determine BCLC staging.

Exclusion Criteria:  - Studies involving patients with metastatic liver tumors;
- Studies using other ablative techniques such as microwave ablation, high‐
intensity focused ultrasound, laser therapy, or cryoablation;
- reviews, letters, editorials, case reports and series, and laboratory studies.
Population:  HCC patinents

Intervention:  SBRT (stereotactic body radiotherapy)

Comparison:  RFA (radiofrequency ablation)
Primary:  OS (overall survival), LC (local control), Toxicity

Secondary:  -

Results:  Overall survival:
In total six retrospective studies, n=2107 patients.
META 3 studies with matched BCLC factors, SBRT: n= 866, RFA n=1241.
HR, 0.89; 95% CI, 0.74– 1.08; p = 0.24; I2 = 0%; p for heterogeneity, 0.56.

Three additional studies (not BCLC matched):
HR, 1.41; 95% CI, 1.21–1.65; p < 0.0001; I 2 = 0%; p for heterogeneity, 0.63.

Considerable heterogeneity was observed in the HR of OS between BCLC‐factor‐matched and ‐unmatched studies (I2 = 92.6%; p for heterogeneity, 0.0002).

Local control:
Four retrospective studies, 1155 patients.
META of three studies:
Time to local recurrence of patients who were treated with SBRT was longer than those treated with RFA: HR, 0.39; 95% CI, 0.30–0.50; p < 0.00001; I2 = 0%; p for heterogeneity, 0.91.

Toxicity (Adverse events):
Three studies; The rates of grade 3 or higher toxicities ranged from 0% to 11%, which were not significantly different between RFA and SBRT.
The uncompensated liver cirrhosis and liver‐related deaths 12 months after treatment was significantly higher in the SBRT‐ HFRT in the report by Hara et al.7 However, the 3‐year liver failure mortalities after propensity score matching were similar (p = 0.52).


Author's Conclusion:  When BCLC factors were properly adjusted, the results of the meta‐ analysis revealed equivalent OS and better LC for SBRT compared with RFA. Therefore, SBRT could be an alternative treatment option.
- Hara (2019)
- Kim (2020)
- Ueno (2020)
- Feng (2016)
- Wahl (2016)
- Rajyaguru (2018)

Lee, J. et al. Comparisons between radiofrequency ablation and stereotactic body radiotherapy for liver malignancies: Meta-analyses and a systematic review. Radiother Oncol. 145. 63-70. 2020
Evidence level/Study Types P - I - C Outcomes/Results Literature References
Evidence level:  3

Overall confidence in the results of the review:  AMSTAR II critical appraisal tool for systematic reviews:
Two critical flaws (items 2 and 7), two non-critical flaws (items 10 and 12)
Overall quality of evidence: critically low


Oxford CEBM Levels of Evidence (2011):
Systematic review of observational studies. Downgraded one level due to "Critically low" quality of the AMSTAR appraisal (no protocol registered and excluded studies not listed).

Study type:  Systematic review and META-Analysis of 11 observational studies.
Databases:  Medline and EMBASE

Search period:  no restrictions

Inclusion Criteria:  (1) clinical trials treating intrahepatic malignancies including hepatocellular carcinoma or liver metastases;
(2) provision of at least one of the primary endpoints; and
(3) treatment arms, each including >5 patients with intrahepatic malignancies.

Exclusion Criteria:  - Editorials, letters, reviews, case reports, and non-human studies were excluded.
- Studies which were not clinical trials or duplicated studies among databases
Population:  Intrahepatic malignancies including hepatocellular carcinoma or liver metastases

Intervention:  RFA OR radiofrequency

Comparison:  SBRT OR stereotactic
Primary:  local control (LC) and overall survival (OS)

Secondary:  -

Results:  11 studies with 2238 patients were included in the meta-analysis, comprising 1329 and 909 patients who underwent RFA and SBRT, respectively. Eight studies were for treating early hepatocellular carcinomas (HCCs) and three for liver metastases.

Most studies performed propensity score matching (PSM) or statistical comparisons to show no significant difference between arms.

Overall survival:
Among the 10 studies that provided survival comparisons, none showed statistically significant differences except one.
Pooled analysis of overall survival (OS) in HCC studies showed an odds ratio of 1.43 (95% CI: 1.05–1.95, p = 0.023), favoring RFA. Among the two liver metastases studies with comparative survival data, no significant difference was observed.

Local control: (LC)
Including HCCs and liver metastases studies, the pooled two-year LC rate was higher in the SBRT arm (83.8%, 95% CI: 77.6–88.4) than that in the RFA arm (71.8%, 95% CI: 61.5–80.2) (p = 0.024).

Among studies on liver metastases, the pooled two-year LC rate was higher in the SBRT arm (83.6% vs.60.0%, p < 0.001).

No significant difference was found between arms in HCC studies (SBRT vs. RFA: 84.5 vs. 79.5% p = 0.431).


Adverse events:
Complications related to treatment were available in nine studies, with severe toxicity rates (grade 3) ranging from 0 to 12% in both arms. The rates of severe complications were mostly lower than 5% in both arms among the included studies. Six studies performed statistical comparisons of severe complications, none of which showed statistically significant differences.

Author's Conclusion:  Summarizing the present study, LC in the present study was equivalent between RFA and SBRT for HCC and better for SBRT for the treatment of liver metastases. Both modalities were comparably feasible regarding toxicities. For HCC, the efficacy of SBRT might be better especially for tumors larger than 2–3 cm, as shown in the literature review. RFA was associated with better survival for treating HCC, but the discrepancy between LC and overall survival requires further investigation, as they are both local modalities showing equivalent efficacy. Future randomized trials can help to identify the discrepancy, and suitable indications for each modality.
- Wahl DR, 2016, J Clin Oncol.
- Rajyaguru DJ, 2018, J Clin Oncol.
- Ahuja CKY, 2014, CardioVasc Interventional Radiol (conference abstract).
- Shiozawa K, 2015 World J Gastroenterol.
- Duan XZT, 2016, Hepatology (conference abstract).
- Feng MU-S, 2016, J Clin Oncol (conference abstract).
- Hara KTA, 2018 Hepatology (conference abstract).
- Kim N, 2019, Radiother Oncol.
- Stintzing S, 2013, Acta Oncol.
- Vigano L, 2018, World J Surg.
- Jackson WC, 2018, Int J Radiat Biol Phys.

Pan, Y. X. et al. Stereotactic Body Radiotherapy vs. Radiofrequency Ablation in the Treatment of Hepatocellular Carcinoma: A Meta-Analysis. Front Oncol. 10. 1639. 2020
Evidence level/Study Types P - I - C Outcomes/Results Literature References
Evidence level:  3

Overall confidence in the results of the review:  AMSTAR II critical appraisal tool for systematic reviews:
Two critical flaws (items 2 and 7), three non-critical flaws (item 6, 10 and 12)
Overall quality of evidence: critically low

Oxford CEBM Levels of Evidence (2011):
Systematic review of observational studies. Downgraded one level due to "Critically low" quality of the AMSTAR II appraisal (no protocol registered and excluded studies not listed).

Study type:  Systematic review and META-Analysis of 10 observational studies (non-randomized).
Databases:  PubMed Central, Embase, Cochrane Library, and Google Scholar

Search period:  until August 26, 2019.

Inclusion Criteria:  - humans and English-language studies;
- no evidence of invasion into the major portal/hepatic vein branches or extrahepatic metastasis based on radiologic imaging;
- patients without previous treatment of transcatheter arterial chemoembolization (TACE), surgery, chemotherapy, or other antitumor treatment;
- documented indications for SBRT and RFA clearly;
- either randomized controlled trials (RCTs) or retrospective studies were candidates;
- patients of two groups with comparable basic clinical characters; and
- studies with outcome information regarding LP rates, OS rates, and/or transplant rates.

Exclusion Criteria:  - studies that did not report original data, including abstracts, case reports, expert opinions, editorials, reviews, or letters;
- either group in the studies or combined other therapies;
- studies based on the same cohort.
Population:  Diagnosed primary liver cancer definitively and patients diagnosed with HCC based on pathological evidence from fine needle aspiration (FNA) or in the absence of biopsy evidence, based on imaging techniques including contrast-enhanced
ultrasonography (CEUS), computed tomography (CT), and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) companied with alphafetoprotein elevation.

Intervention:  SBRT

Comparison:  RFA
Primary:  Local progression (LP) control and overall survival (OS).
LP was defined as the recurrence of lesion in the treatment area by imaging studies. And LP time was the period from the initial treatment to the discovery of LP or last follow-up. The OS was defined the period from the date of initial treatment of the HCC to the date of death related to any cause or last follow-up.

Secondary:  -

Results:  2,732 patients from the 10 included studies, 859 patients were classified into the SBRT group, and the rest of the 1,873 patients were classified into the RFA group.

Local Progression Rates (LP rates):
Six studies; SBRT vs RFA
1- year LP rates OR 0.47, 95% CI 0.26–0.83, P = 0.010; χ 2 = 2.93, I2 = 0% (5 studies).
2-year LP rate OR 0.67, 95% CI 0.43–1.05, P = 0.080, χ2 = 0.33, I2 = 0% (4 studies)
3-year LP rates OR 0.55, 95% CI 0.37–0.81, P = 0.003, χ2 = 2.66,I2 = 0% (4 studies).


Overall survival (OS):
Nine studies with 2,700 patients compared OS rates of SBRT group with RFA group.
1-year OS OR 1.38, 95% CI 1.00–1.93, P = 0.050; I2= 33% (8 studies).
2- year OS OR 1.57, 95% CI 1.23–2.00, P < 0.0003; I2= 24% (7 studies).
3-years OS OR 1.44, 95% CI 0.90–2.33, P = 0.130; I2= 76% (6 studies).
5-year OR 1.35, 95% CI 0.81–2.26, P = 0.250; I2= 77% (4 studies).


Prognosis for Treatment Allocation:
The treatment allocation was not a prognostic factor for LP (HR 0.72, 95% IC 0.42–1.25,
P = 0.240, three studies). However, RFA group was more favorable than SBRT group for OS benefits (HR 1.43, 95% IC 1.24–1.64, P < 0.00001, five studies).

Transplant and Post-transplant Pathological Necrosis Rate:
There were no significant differences in transplant rate and post-transplant pathological necrosis rate for both SBRT and RFA (OR 0.65, 95% CI 0.24–1.79, P = 0.040; and OR 0.46, 95% CI
0.13–1.63, P = 0.230, respectively.

Author's Conclusion:  In sum, our meta-analysis shows that SBRT provided better local control than RFA, and it could be used as a potential alternative local control treatment for HCC.
- Sapisochin G, 2017, J Hepatol.
- Wahl DR, 2016, J Clin Oncol.
- Parikh ND, 2018 J Med Imaging Radiat Oncol.
- Wahl D, 2014, Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys.
- Rajyaguru DJ, 2018, J Clin Oncol.
- Shiozawa K, 2015, World J Gastroenterol.
- Mohamed M, 2016, Adv Radiat Oncol.
- Berger NG, 2017, J Surg Oncol.
- Hara K, 2019, Hepatology.
- Duon X, 2016, Hepatology.

Rim, C. H. et al. Clinical feasibility and efficacy of stereotactic body radiotherapy for hepatocellular carcinoma: A systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. Radiother Oncol. 131. 135-144. 2019
Evidence level/Study Types P - I - C Outcomes/Results Literature References
Evidence level:  3

Overall confidence in the results of the review:  AMSTAR II critical appraisal tool for systematic reviews:
Two critical flaws (items 2 and 7), three non-critical flaws (items 6, 10 and 12)
Overall quality of evidence: critically low

Oxford CEBM Levels of Evidence (2011):
Systematic review of observational (non-randomized) studies. Downgraded one level due to "Critically low" quality of the AMSTAR appraisal (no protocol registered and excluded studies not listed)

Study type:  Systematic review and META-Analysis of 32 observational studies (non-randomized).
Databases:  PubMed, Medline, Embase, and Cochrane Library database

Search period:  Until April 23, 2018

Inclusion Criteria:  - not use any language restriction
- clinical trials, including retrospective or prospective studies;
- inclusion of at least 10 patients with HCC treated with SBRT or SABR;
- SBRT performed in <10 fractions="" br=""> - provision of at least one subject from both survival and local control.

Exclusion Criteria:  - exclude duplicated studies, conference abstracts, reviews, letters, editorials, case reports, lab studies, and studies with irrelevant subjects.
- multiple studies from one institution (only one included).
Population:  HCC patients

Intervention:  SBRT or stereotactic ablative radiotherapy (SABR)

Comparison:  -
Primary:  Survival or tumor control rate

Secondary:  Complications of grade 3.

Results:  32 studies comprising 33 cohorts, consisting of 1950 patients.

Overall survival (OS):
1-year OS 72.6% (95% CI: 65.7–78.6)
2-year OS 57.8% (95% CI: 50.9–64.4)
3-year OS 48.3% (95% CI: 40.3–56.5); all significant heterogeneity.
In subgroup comparisons, differences between subgroups categorized by tumor size (median value of 5 cm) were statistically significant for 1-year OS rate (p < 0.001) and 2-year OS rate (p = 0.020), and tended to be significant for 3- year OS rate (p = 0.070).
For subgroup comparisons categorized by radiation dose (median EQD2 estimates of 80 Gy10), no statistically significant difference was found among all three comparisons
regarding OS.

LC
1-year LC, 85.7% (95% CI: 80.1–90.0)
2-year LC, 83.6% (95% CI: 77.4–88.3)
3-year LC, 83.9% (95% CI: 77.6–88.6); all significant heterogeneity.
In the subgroup comparisons regarding tumor size (median value of 5 cm), the differences were statistically significant for 1-year, 2-year, and 3-year LC rates (p < 0.001, 0.001, and 0.001,
respectively).
In the subgroup comparisons regarding radiation dose (median EQD2 estimates of 80 Gy10), the difference was marginally significant for 1-year LC rate (p = 0.071), and not significant for 2- and 3-year LC rates.

Adverse events:
The most commonly reported complications of grade 3 were GI or hepatic toxicities.
GI toxicities: the pooled rate was 3.9% (95% CI: 2.6–5.6).
Hepatic toxicities: The pooled rate was 4.7% (95% CI: 3.4–6.5).

META-regression:
Child-Pugh class was significantly correlated with hepatic complication of grade 3 in meta-regression
analysis (p = 0.013).

Author's Conclusion:  The present study reported pooled results of oncologic outcomes based on the integration of information from a large number of trials, providing support for the clinical efficacy and feasibility of SBRT for HCC. Both OS and LC were affected by tumor size, and radiation dose marginally affected LC. LC rates for small HCCs were excellent, and moderate efficacy was shown in treatment of tumors 5 cm. Rates of serious complications were low, either hepatic or GI, suggesting the feasibility of SBRT for HCC. However, liver function should be considered to find patients eligible for SBRT in order to avoid severe hepatic toxicity. Randomized trials are warranted to prove the clinical benefit of SBRT for HCC, and combination use with systemic treatment is another projected
subject of future research.
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Cochrane Risk of Bias Tool 1 (RCT): 3 Bewertung(en)
Brunner, Thomas B. Efficacy of Stereotactic Body Radiotherapy in Patients With Hepatocellular Carcinoma Not Suitable for Transarterial Chemoembolization (HERACLES: HEpatocellular Carcinoma Stereotactic RAdiotherapy CLinical Efficacy Study). Frontiers in oncology. 11. . 2021
Population Intervention / Comparison Outcomes/Results Methodical Notes
Evidence level:  3
Study type:  Prospective, two-arm, non-randomized, study.
Number of Patients:  39 HCC patients (n= 19 allocated to TACE, n=20 allocated to SBRT)
Recruiting Phase:  The active recruitment time was 12 months (06/2016 and 06/2017).
Inclusion Criteria:  - Age ≥ 18 years, male and female
- Histologically or cytologically confirmed hepatocellular carcinoma OR diagnosis made with characteristic enhancement in 4-Phase CT or MRI corresponding to AASLD- / EASL guidelines in cirrhotic patients.
- Discussion in a routine multidisciplinary tumour board
- Understanding of procedure, significance and consequences of the study
- signed informed consent

specific for SBRT:
- Patients unsuitable for surgery, TACE*, RFA, or alcohol ablation
- bilirubin has to be < 4 x the upper limit of normal, AST or ALT < 6 x the upper limit of normal, international normalized ratio < 1.5 except if patients are on oral anticoagulation, haemoglobin≥ 90 g/L, platelets ≥ 50 x 109/L, and neutrophils ≥ 1.0 x 109/L

specific for TACE:
- Patients suitable for TACE
- bilirubin has to be <2 mg="" dl="" ast="" or="" alt="" 6="" x="" the="" upper="" limit="" of="" normal="" international="" normalized="" ratio="" 1="" 5="" except="" if="" patients="" are="" on="" oral="" anticoagulation="" haemoglobin="" 90="" g="" l="" platelets="" 50="" x="" 109="" l="" and="" neutrophils="" 1="" 0="" x="" 109="" l="" br=""> Exclusion Criteria:  None of the following criteria must be present at the time of registration:
- Child-Turcotte-Pugh (CTP) C liver score
- Hepatic encephalopathy more than Grade 1 according to Child Pugh criteria (Appendix 3)
- Active hepatitis
- Gastric, duodenal or variceal bleed within 2 months of registration
- Prior radiotherapy of the region to be treated
- For female patients: Pregnancy, planned pregnancy
Intervention:  SBRT
Comparison:  TACE
Primary:  Feasibility of SBRT in everyday clinical practice
Secondary:  - Toxicity according to the NCI-CTCAE v4.0 for adverse events,
- health related quality of life (QOL),
- incidence of local progression (LP) (according to mRECIST),
- overall survival (OS) and
- progression free survival (PFS)

For QOL:
Patients treated with SBRT filled in the EORTC QLQ-C30 and QLQ C29 at the first treatment, 4 weeks after the last treatment and at the second follow up (3 months later). For the patients treated with TACE the QLQ assessment was before and after the treatment.
Results:  TACE n= 19, SBRT n= 18.
The median follow-up was 31 months.

Quality of Life (QOL):
The QOL remained stable before and after treatment and was comparable in both treatment groups.
Toxicity/Adverse events:
Five patients developed grade ≥ 3 toxicities in the TACE group and 3 in the SBRT group.
LP, PFS and OS:
The cumulative incidence of LP after 1-, 2- and 3-years was 6, 6, 6% in the SBRT group and 28, 39, and 65% in the TACE group (p = 0.02).

The median PFS was 4 months in the SBRT group and 11 months in the TACE group (HR: 2.172, 95% CI 0.988– 4.775, p = 0.05) which remained also significant on multivariate analysis (HR: 2.855, 95% CI: 1.227–6.644, p = 0.02).
Patients with
- a BCLC stage A (HR: 0.208, 95% CI: 0.055–0.787, p = 0.02),
- with multiple HCC (HR: 2.759, 95% CI: 1.207–6.3006, p = 0.02) as well as patients with
- prior treatments (HR: 2.693, 95% CI: 1.199–6.046, p = 0.02)
had a better PFS.

The 1- and 2- years OS rates were 84% and 47% in the TACE group and 44% and 39% in the SBRT group (p = 0.20).
Patients with a
- higher CP score (HR 3.968,95% CI: 1.419–11.096, p = 0.01)
- larger tumors (HR: 3.214, 95% CI: 1.355–7.624, p = 0.01) and
- PVT (HR: 3.107, 95% CI: 1.116– 8.648 p = 0.03)
had a worse OS, which remained significant on multivariate analysis.
Author's Conclusion:  This is the first published trial evaluating TACE and SBRT in a prospective manner, showing that SBRT is a well-tolerated locally effective treatment that does not impair the quality of life of multi-morbid patients, and could be considered as an alternative in carefully selected patients with contraindications for TACE.
Funding Sources:  This study was funded by the German Consortium for Translational Cancer Research (Deutsches Konsortium für Translationale Krebsforschung, DKTK)-Partner Site Freiburg. DB was funded by the Berta-Ottenstein-Programme for Advanced Clinician Scientists, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg.
COI:  DB: consulting and advisory: Bayer Healthcare, Boston Scientific; teaching and speaking fees: Falk Foundation. MS: consulting and advisory: Bayer Healthcare; teaching and speaking fees: L.W. Gore, Falk Foundation.
The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of
any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential
conflict of interest.
Randomization:  Patients received either TACE or SBRT according to the decision of the institutional HCC tumor board, taking into account the standard treatment algorithm. TACE was offered in patients with localized disease and/or with contraindications for resection, transplantation or RFA. For patients where TACE or systemic treatment were not deemed suitable either due to exclusion criteria or for any other reason such as patient preference, SBRT was offered as an alternative.
Blinding:  n.s.
Dropout Rate/ITT-Analysis:  2 patients in the SBRT group did not receive allocated intervention because of tumor progression. No patients lost to follow-up.
Notes:  Oxford CEBM Levels of Evidence (2011):
Non-randomized controlled trial. EL 3

High risk of bias due to missing randomization (selection bias).
The baseline characteristics of the patients in the treatment groups differs significantly, probably due to the used allocation method. From methodological point of view, this has to be considered during interpreting the results. From clinical point of view this might be reasonable to offer the patients the best suitable and possible treatment. As a consequence we refrain from further downgrading.

Comito, Tiziana. Stereotactic Radiotherapy after Incomplete Transarterial (Chemo-) Embolization (TAE\TACE) versus Exclusive TAE or TACE for Treatment of Inoperable HCC: A Phase III Trial (NCT02323360). Current oncology (Toronto, Ont.). 29. . 2022
Population Intervention / Comparison Outcomes/Results Methodical Notes
Evidence level:  3
Study type:  Prospective, single-institution, randomized, controlled, unblinded, parallel-group phase III trial.
Number of Patients:  Patients with BCLC A-B disease (n=21 SBRT, n=19 TAE/TACE (15 patients received bland embolization, and 4 received epirubicin-based TACE).
Recruiting Phase:  November 2014 to September 2019
Inclusion Criteria:  Adult patients with Karnofsky Performance Status (KPS) >70% were eligible if they were diagnosed with unresectable HCC by histology or non-invasive European Association for the Study of the Liver criteria following prior TAE or TACE with radiologically defined residual disease.
Patients also had to be appropriate candidates for locoregional treatment with stage BCLC A-B HCC (without evidence of active extrahepatic disease, including vascular thrombi) and Child–Pugh Class A or B liver disease without existing encephalopathy or ascites.
Exclusion Criteria:  - Concurrent malignancy,
- uncontrolled infection,
- severe anomalies in blood tests,
- previous abdominal irradiation and
- Grade ≥3 hemorrhagic complications within 4 weeks of enrollment in the study.
Intervention:  SBRT following the incomplete response of unresectable HCC previously treated with one TAE/TACE cycle.
Comparison:  A second course of TAE/TACE following the incomplete response of unresectable HCC previously treated with one TAE/TACE cycle.
Primary:  Control of local disease, LC
Secondary:  Overall Survival, OS; Distant Recurrence-Free Survival, DRFS; and Progression-Free Survival, PFS.
Results:  The median follow-up duration was 20 (range 3–56) months.

Local control:
Median LC was 12 months (CI95% 7–20) in the overall population.
1- year LC rate: 56%
2-year LC rate: 36%
The use of SBRT compared to TAE/TACE: HR: 0.15 [CI95% 0.04–0.4].
Corresponding to a 1-year LC of 84% vs. 23%.
No other clinical- or treatment-related variables were correlated with the incidence of local failure.

Progression free survival:
Median PFS was 6 (CI95% 4–9) months; 1- and 2-year PFS was 26% and 11%.
Patients treated with SBRT experienced significantly longer PFS in comparison with patients treated with TAE/TACE (median 9 versus 4 months, p = 0.016; HR: 0.43 [CI95% 0.21–0.87]). In
the TAE arm, PFS was 13% and 6% at 1 and 2 years, respectively.

Overall survival:
Median OS was 30 (CI95% 20–36) months, corresponding to a 1-year and 2-year OS of 86% and 62%, respectively. Median OS was 31 months (95% CI 22–53) in the SBRT arm and 30 months (95% CI 17–35) in the TAE/TACE arm (p = 0.472). OS at 1 and 2 years was 75% and 64% in the SBRT arm and 95% and 57% in the TACE arm, respectively. In the univariate analysis, OS was significantly impacted by Child–Pugh A liver disease (median 31 versus 17 months, p = 0.022; HR 0.22 [CI95% 0.05–0.80]) and prior aggressive locoregional management including surgery and/or RFA/PEI (median 47 versus 22 months, p = 0.007; HR 0.28 [CI95% 0.11–0.70]).

Adverse events:
No grade >3 toxicity was observed in any treatment arm.
Author's Conclusion:  In this phase III open trial, patients affected by inoperable HCC experiencing an incomplete response following ≥1 cycle of TAE/TACE, SBRT was correlated with significantly higher LC rates as compared to rechallenge with TAE/TACE. This was correlated with extended PFS in the SBRT arm, though no difference was found in the onset of new lesions outside the target tumor. Although no significant OS advantage was found for SBRT over TAE/TACE, an aggressive locoregional schedule may improve outcomes in selected patients.
Funding Sources:  This research received no external funding.
COI:  : Related To The Current Work, The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Randomization:  A computer-generated minimization program that incorporates a random element was used.
Blinding:  -
Dropout Rate/ITT-Analysis:  The sample size calculation was based on the assumption that at least 50 patients were needed for randomization (25 per arm, 50% randomization rate in both arms) to achieve 80% power to detect an LC Hazard Ratio (HR) of 0.18 (corresponding to a 45% difference at the analysis time, 85% vs. 40% in favor of SBRT versus TAE/TACE) with a 5% two-sided type I error. This
corresponded to 18 events following study initiation: as of 23rd September 2019, enrollment was prematurely stopped before planned target accrual was reached (n = 40) due to the early achievement of the pre-specified planned number of event.
Notes:  Cochrane risk of bias tool (Rob)-1:
3 questions(s) were considered to be unclear risk of bias; 0 question(s) were considered to be high risk of bias.
Overall risk of bias: Low.

Oxford CEBM Levels of Evidence (2011):
Randomized controlled trial. The presented results (table 2, figure 3 and results) are not congruent in all points. This reduces our confidence in the results, which is why we chose to downgrade the quality of the evidence of one level to EL 3.

Kim, T. H. et al. Proton beam radiotherapy vs. radiofrequency ablation for recurrent hepatocellular carcinoma: a randomized phase III trial. Journal of hepatology. 74. 603?612. 2021
Population Intervention / Comparison Outcomes/Results Methodical Notes
Evidence level:  2
Study type:  Phase III investigator-initiated, randomized, single-center, open-label clinical trial.
Number of Patients:  144 patients were randomly assigned (n=72 PBT arm, n=72 RFA arm) from the National Cancer Center (NCC), Goyang, Republic of Korea.
Recruiting Phase:  December 2013 and December 2017,
Inclusion Criteria:  - HCC diagnosis was confirmed either histologically or clinically according to the Korean Liver Cancer Study Group and NCC Korea guidelines;
- presence of recurrent or residual HCC lesions without vascular invasion after other treatment;
- the largest diameter and number of target lesion(s) were <3 cm="" and="" 2="" respectively="" br=""> - no history of prior radiotherapy to targeted lesion(s);
- no evidence of extrahepatic metastasis;
- Child-Pugh score <−7 without uncontrolled ascites;
- Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group performance status <−2;
- age >−18 years;
- adequate bone marrow and liver function.
All patients were unresectable or unwilling to undergo resection.
Exclusion Criteria:  see inclusion criteria
Intervention:  PBT
Comparison:  RFA
Primary:  2-year local progression-free survival (LPFS).
Planned clinical, laboratory, and tumor assessment via contrast-enhanced multiphasic CT or MRI was performed within 2 weeks before each treatment, at the first month after the completion of RFA or PBT, every 3 months for the following 2 years, and every 6 months thereafter.
Secondary:  Progression-free survival (PFS), overall survival (OS) safety, defined as the presentation of adverse events (AEs) related to the treatments that were assessed.
Results:  The median follow-up duration was 51.6 months (90% CI 45.6–59.5) (IQR 39.3–67.8) in the PBT arm and 50.7 months (90% CI 45.8–57.7) (IQR 41.4–67.4) in the RFA arm.

2-year LPFS:
In the PP population, the 2-year LPFS rate with PBT (n = 80) vs. RFA (n = 56) was 94.8% vs. 83.9%, a difference of 10.9 percentage points (90% CI 1.8–20.0; p <0.001); in the ITT population, the 2-year LPFS rate with PBT vs. RFA was 92.8% vs. 83.2%, a difference of 9.6 percentage points (90% CI 0.7–18.4; p <0.001), meeting the criteria for non-inferiority. The 3- and 4- year LPFS rates for PBT were also non-inferior to those for RFA.


Overall survival:
The median OS value was not reached in both arms and both populations.
In the PP and ITT populations, the 2-year OS rates were 88.8% and 91.7% in the PBT arm, and 92.9% and 90.3% in the RFA arm, respectively; the HRs of the OS rate between the PBT and RFA arms were not different (HR 1.19; 95% CI 0.62–2.27; HR 1.07; 95% CI 0.58–1.98, respectively).

Adverse events:
The most common adverse events were radiation pneumonitis (32.5%) and decreased leukocyte counts (23.8%) for PBT and increased alanine aminotransferase levels (96.4%) and abdominal pain (30.4%) for RFA. No Grade 4 adverse events or mortality were noted.
Author's Conclusion:  In conclusion, this prospective randomized study demonstrated that PBT is associated with LPFS rates that are comparable to those observed for RFA in patients with rHCC with <−2 tumor(s) of <3 cm="" pbt="" was="" also="" tolerable="" and="" safe="" consistent="" with="" the="" known="" profile="" the="" associated="" good="" feasibility="" and="" comparable="" clinical="" outcomes="" suggest="" that="" pbt="" may="" be="" a="" promising="" treatment="" option="" for="" small="" hcc="" td="">
Funding Sources:  This study was supported by the National Cancer Center Grant, Korea (NCC 1810271, 1810031 and 1710030). The funding source had no role in the study design, data curation, or the analysis and interpretation of data.
COI:  see publication
Randomization:  Eligible patients were randomly assigned (1:1) to the PBT arm or RFA arm with stratification according to the Child-Pugh classification (A vs. B7) and tumor stage (American Joint Committee on Cancer [AJCC] 7th edition stage I–II vs. III). After randomization to each treatment arm, if the assigned method was not technically feasible, the patients were allowed to be treated with the other method.
Blinding:  Patients and all investigators were unmasked to the treatment assignment.
Dropout Rate/ITT-Analysis:  ITT n=72 for each arm; per protocol analysis RFA arm n=56, PBT arm n=80.

PBT arm: 6 (8.3%) patients crossed over to the RFA arm and 5 patients received another
treatment.
RFA arm: 19 (26.4%) patients crossed over to the PBT arm and 3 received another treatment.
Notes:  Cochrane risk of bias tool (Rob)-1:
3 questions(s) were considered to be unclear risk of bias; 0 question(s) were considered to be high risk of bias.
Overall risk of bias: Low.

Oxford CEBM Levels of Evidence (2011):
Randomized controlled trial.

HCC Downstaging

Schlüsselfrage:

Ergänzende Literaturrecherche Downstaging

Inhalt: 16 Literaturstellen
Literaturstelle Evidenzlevel Studientyp
Affonso, B. B. 2019 3 Prospective cohort study
Agopian, V. G. 2015 4 Retrospective Cohort Study
Chapman, W. C. 2017 4 Retrospective Cohort Study
Degroote, H. 2020 1 Retrospective multicentric validation study
Kardashian, A. 2020 4 Retrospective Cohort Study
Kulik, L. 2018 1 Systematic review and meta-analysis.
Effectiveness of LRT in the management of HCC patients on the LT waitlist.
Lai, Q. 2020 4 Retrospective Cohort Study
Mazzaferro, V. 2020 2 Randomised controlled phase 2b/3 trial
Mehta, N. 2020 4 Retrospective Cohort Study
Parikh, N. D. 2015 1 Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis (of cohort studies)
Ravaioli, M. 2019 4 Retrospective observational study
Sapisochin, G. 2016 3 Prospective cohort study
Sinha, J. 2019 3 Prospective cohort study
Toso, C. 2019 4 Retrospective cohort study
Victor, D. W., 3rd 2020 4 Retrospective Cohort Study
Yao, F. Y. 2015 3 Prospective Cohort Study


OXFORD (2011) Appraisal Sheet: Systematic Reviews: 2 Bewertung(en)
Kulik, L. et al. Therapies for patients with hepatocellular carcinoma awaiting liver transplantation: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Hepatology. 67. 381-400. 2018
Evidence level/Study Types P - I - C Outcomes/Results Literature References
Evidence level:  1

Study type:  Systematic review and meta-analysis.
Effectiveness of LRT in the management of HCC patients on the LT waitlist.
Databases:  Ovid Medline In-Process & Other Non-Indexed Citations, Ovid MEDLINE, Ovid EMBASE, Ovid Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, and Scopus

Search period:  inception to April 25, 2016.

Inclusion Criteria:  studies that enrolled adults with cirrhosis awaiting LT and treated with bridging or down-staging therapies before transplant. Therapies included TACE,transarterial radioembolization (TARE), ablation, and radiotherapy. We included both comparative and noncomparative studies with no language restrictions.

Exclusion Criteria:  studies with patients enrolled before 1996, case reports, cohorts with fewer than 5 patients, reviews, letters, errata, commentaries, and studies published only as
abstracts.
Population:  Three research questions
1.) Adults with cirrhosis awaiting LT andT1 HCC
2.)Adults with cirrhosis awaiting LT and T2 HCC
3.)Adults with cirrhosis awaiting LT and beyond Milan (T3) HCC
63 studies were included (comparative and non-comparative).

Intervention:  three research questions.
1.) Observation versus any therapy (TACE,TARE, ablation, or radiotherapy)
2.)Transplant alone versus transplant with any bridging therapy (TACE, TARE, ablation, or radiotherapy)
3.) Transplant without down-staging versus transplant following down-staging to
within Milan (T2)

Comparison:  -
Primary:  Waitlist dropout due to progression beyond transplant criteria, post-LT survival,
recurrence.

Secondary:  -

Results:  1.): For adults with T1 HCC and waiting for LT, there were only 2 nonrandomized comparative studies, both with a high risk of bias. In one series, the rate of dropout from all causes at 6 months in T1 HCC patients who underwent LRT was 5.3%, while in the other series of T1 HCC patients who did not receive LRT, the dropout rate at median follow-up of 2.4 years and the progression rate to T2 HCC were 30% and 88%, respectively.
2: For adults with T2 HCC awaiting LT, transplant with any bridging therapy showed a nonsignificant reduction in the risk of waitlist dropout due to progression (relative risk [RR], 0.32; 95%CI, 0.06-1.85; I2 5 0%) and of waitlist dropout from all causes (RR, 0.38; 95% CI, 0.060-2.370; I2 5 85.7%) compared to
no therapy based on three comparative studies. The quality of evidence is very low due to high risk of bias, imprecision, and inconsistency.
There were five comparative studies which reported on posttransplant survival rates and 10 comparative studiesvwhich reported on posttransplant recurrence, and there was no significant difference seen in either of these endpoints.
3.)For adults initially with stage T3 HCC who received LRT, there were three studies reporting on transplant with any downstaging therapy versus no downstaging, and this showed a significant increase in 1-year (two studies, RR, 1.11; 95% CI,1.01-1.23) and 5-year (1 study, RR, 1.17; 95% CI, 1.03-1.32) post-LT survival rates for patients who received LRT. The quality of evidence is very low due to serious risk of bias and imprecision

Author's Conclusion:  "In patients with HCC listed for LT, the use of LRT is associated with a non-significant trend toward improved waitlist and posttransplant outcomes, though there is a high risk of selection bias in the available evidence."
see article, 63 references.
Methodical Notes
Funding Sources:  not stated.

COI:  "Potential conflict of interest: Dr. Kulik advises Bayer."

Study Quality:  Modified Newcastle-Ottawa Scale was used to assess the risk of bias in observational studies. Quality of evidence was evaluated using the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE) methods.
Quality of evidence was rated very low for all outcomes.

Heterogeneity:  "There was significant heterogeneity among the three studies that looked at down-staging for T3 HCC compared to transplant for T3 HCC without downstaging in terms of the comparative group"

Publication Bias:  Not investigated

Notes:  
Publication bias not investigated.

Parikh, N. D. et al. Downstaging hepatocellular carcinoma: A systematic review and pooled analysis. Liver Transpl. 21. 1142-52. 2015
Evidence level/Study Types P - I - C Outcomes/Results Literature References
Evidence level:  1

Study type:  Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis (of cohort studies)
Databases:  MEDLINE and Embase

Search period:  01.1996 - 03.2015

Inclusion Criteria:  Cohort studies (retrospective or prospective); evaluating downstaging in patients with cirrhosis and HCC; studies in which downstaging was performed
using surgical resection, RFA, TACE, TARE, SBRT, or a combination of therapies; and studies that reported rates of success for downstaging patients to within Milan criteria using imaging criteria and/or posttransplant outcomes (including recurrence rates and/or survival) among those who were downstaged to within Milan criteria.

Exclusion Criteria:  We excluded articles that evaluated investigational procedures; evaluated systemic chemotherapeutic agents; used explant data for evaluation of downstaging success; had incomplete data for primary outcomes of interest; included less than 5 patients; and/or used surgical resection as the only method for downstaging patients.
Population:  Patients with cirrhosis and HCC: Child-Pugh class A disease (54%), Child-Pugh class B (36%)Child-Pugh class C (8%).
15 obeservational Studies. 13 studies with 950 patients described the
success of downstaging patients to within Milan criteria and 15 studies with 320 patients which described posttransplant recurrence rates among patients who were downstaged.

Intervention:  downstaging was performed using surgical resection, RFA, TACE, TARE, SBRT, or a combination

Comparison:  Other methods
Primary:  Success rate of downstaging to within Milan criteria and HCC (decrease of tumor burden to within Milan)
Recurrence rates after LT.

Secondary:  Post-LT Survival

Results:  Primary: Downstaging success:
13 Studies n=950: Aggregate success rate of 0.48% (95% CI, 0.39%-0.58%). High heterogeneity (I2 5 84.8%).
Studies that included patients with tumor thrombus had the lowest success rates;
when these studies were excluded, the pooled success rate was 0.54% (95% CI, 0.45%-0.63%).
Studies with prospectively designed protocols for downstaging also yielded a significantly higher success rate compared to retrospective studies (0.68% versus 0.44% P < 0.001;). There was no significant difference in
the success rate of TACE and TARE for downstaging (0.48% versus 0.37%; P 5 0.51; however, the highest downstaging success rates were reported in cohorts undergoing multimodal therapy for downstaging.
Primary: Post-LT Recurrence:
12 Studies n=320 patients. In total 58 (0.16; 95% CI, 0.11-0.23) patients had HCC recurrence after LT; There was no significant difference in recurrence rates between TACE and TARE (P
= 0.33).
Secondary: Post-LT survival could not be aggregated because of heterogeneity

Author's Conclusion:  "We have shown that downstaging patients outside of Milan can be achieved in approximately half of all patients; however, post-LT recurrence is higher than what has been reported in patients who present within Milan.
It is important to note that in well-designed studies with downstaging protocols, equivalent posttransplant results between downstaged patients and those who present within Milan criteria can be achieved."
Green 2013
Pracht 2013
Tohme 2013
Bova 2013
Inarrairaegui 2012
Barakat 010
Jang 2010
De Luna 2009
Lewandowski 2009
Chapman 2008
Otto 2006
Yao 2015
Ravaioli 2008
Methodical Notes
Funding Sources:  "This work was conducted with support from the Agency for Health Research and Quality Center for Patient-Centered Outcomes Research (R24 HS022418)."

COI:  Nothing to report.

Study Quality:  Study quality was rated by 1 investigator using the modified Newcastle-Ottawa scale NOS. Quality ranged from 5-9 points.

Heterogeneity:  "There was heterogeneity in downstaging success rate among included studies (I2 = 84.8%)".
"One of the most notable findings of our systematic review is the substantial heterogeneity and limitations of data evaluating downstaging."

Publication Bias:  "Publication bias was assessed by visual inspection of a funnel plot. "Our funnel plots showed no evidence of bias; however, this may reflect the large number of small studies included in this meta-analysis."

Notes:  
Evidence level 1:Systematic review
High heterogeneity in the main analysis (Downstaging success).

OXFORD (2011) Appraisal Sheet: RCT: 1 Bewertung(en)
Funding Sources:  Italian Ministry of Health

COI:  Not stated

Randomization:  After an observation period of 3 months, during which sorafenib was allowed, patients with partial or complete responses according to modified
Response Evaluation Criteria in Solid Tumors were randomly assigned (1:1) by an interactive web-response system to liver transplantation or non-transplantation therapies (control group). A block randomisation (block size of 2),
stratified by centre and compliance to sorafenib treatment, was applied.

Blinding:  Open-label trial

Dropout Rate/ITT-Analysis:  Statistical analyses were done according to the intention-to-treat population

Notes:  
Level of evidence 2: Randomized controlled trial

- A national programme for expansion of the donor pool was implemented progressively. These major changes, not considered in the study design, forced the trial monitoring committee to recommend study closure on March 31, 2015. Owing to the study closure, the required number of tumoural events or deaths was not met.
- Open-label trial, no blinding
Mazzaferro, V. et al. Liver transplantation in hepatocellular carcinoma after tumour downstaging (XXL): a randomised, controlled, phase 2b/3 trial. Lancet Oncol. 21. 947-956. 2020
Population Intervention - Comparison Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  2

Study type:  Randomised controlled phase 2b/3 trial

Number of Patient:  74

Recruitung Phase:  March 1, 2011 to March 31, 2015

Inclusion Criteria:  Patients aged 18–65 years with hepatocellular carcinoma beyond the Milan criteria, absence of macrovascular invasion or extrahepatic spread, 5-year estimated post-transplantation survival of at least 50%, and good liver function (Child-Pugh A-B7)

Exclusion Criteria:  General contraindications to transplantation, other previous or concurrent malignant diseases, and HIV infection were exclusion criteria. The main tumour-related exclusion criteria were presence of extrahepatic spread on CT scan or MRI,
presence of hepatic hilum lymph nodes with short axis greater than 2 cm, portal vein tumour thrombosis or invasion, and life expectancy of less than 3 months owing to hepatocellular carcinoma or less than 6 months owing to any other disease.
Intervention:  Liver transplantation

Comparison:  Non-transplantation best available tumour treatment
Primary:  5-year tumour event-free survival for phase 2b and overall survival for phase 3.

Secondary:  

Results:  5-year tumour event-free survival
5-year tumour event-free survival was 76,8% (95% CI 60,8–96,9) in the transplantation group versus 18·3% (7,1–47,0) in the control group (hazard ratio [HR] 0·20, 95% CI 0·07–0·57; p=0·003).

5-year overall survival

5-year overall survival was 77,5% (95% CI 61,9–97,1) in the transplantation group versus 31,2% (16,6–58,5) in the control group (HR 0,32, 95% CI 0,11–0,92; p=0,035).



Author's Conclusion:  Although results must be interpreted with caution owing to the early closing of the trial, after effective and sustained downstaging of eligible hepatocellular carcinomas beyond the Milan criteria, liver transplantation improved tumour event-free survival and overall survival compared with non-transplantation therapies Postdownstaging tumour response could contribute to the expansion of hepatocellular carcinoma transplantation criteria.
Methodical Notes

OXFORD (2011) Appraisal Sheet: Diagnostic Studies: 1 Bewertung(en)
Degroote, H. et al. Extended criteria for liver transplantation in hepatocellular carcinoma. A retrospective, multicentric validation study in Belgium. Surg Oncol. 33. 231-238. 2020
Evidence level/Study Types Population Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  1

Study type:  Retrospective multicentric validation study
Number of patients / samples:  526

Reference standard:  Milan Criteria (MC)

Validation:  

Blinding:  Blinding was not stated

Inclusion of clinical information:  

Dealing with ambiguous clinical findings:  
Results:  Overall survival (OS) and recurrence (RR) rates were similar between patients within MC and all extended criteria. Five-year OS within MC was 71.3% compared to 70.9% for Asan Criteria (AC), 71.4% for Up-to-7 Criteria (UT7), 69.7% for French alpha-foetoprotein (AFP model) and 71.0% for Metroticket 2.0 (MT2.0) criteria. Five-year RR within MC was 12.3% compared to 13.5% for AC, 13.0% for
UT7, 14.3% for AFP-model and 13.2% for MT2.0 criteria. Patients beyond MC but within the extended criteria had tendency towards higher recurrence.

Author conclusions:  All validated extended criteria (AC, UT7, AFP-model and MT2.0) could be proposed as alternatives to the MC with similar outcome. Prospective data are awaited to assess recurrence beyond MC.
Methodical Notes
Funding Sources:  None

COI:  None

Notes:  Level 4: Retrospective Studies without reference standard or without blinding

OXFORD (2011) Appraisal Sheet: Prognostic Studies: 1 Bewertung(en)
Funding Sources:  None

COI:  None

Randomization:  

Blinding:  was not described

Dropout Rate/ITT-Analysis:  

Notes:  Level of Evidence 4: Retrospective Cohort Study
Lai, Q. et al. Identification of an Upper Limit of Tumor Burden for Downstaging in Candidates with Hepatocellular Cancer Waiting for Liver Transplantation: A West-East Collaborative Effort. Cancers (Basel). 12. . 2020
Population Intervention Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  4

Study type:  Retrospective Cohort Study

Number of Patient:  3325

Recruitung Phase:  January 2000 - March 2017

Inclusion Criteria:  patients with a radiological diagnosis of HCC at the time of first referral for LT

Exclusion Criteria:  patients with mixed hepatocellular-cholangiocellular cancer, cholangiocarcinoma misdiagnosed as HCC and incidental HCC
Intervention:  This study aimed at developing an intention-to-treat model through a competing-risk analysis.

Comparison:  
Primary:  Posttransplant HCC-related death, upper limit of tumor burden

Secondary:  

Results:  Twelve centers in Europe, United States, and Asia created a Derivation (n = 2318) and a Validation Set (n = 773) of HCC patients listed for LT between January 2000–March 2017.

In the Derivation Set, the competing-risk analysis identified two independent covariables predicting post-transplant HCC-related death: combined HCC number and diameter (SHR = 1.15; p < 0.001) and alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) (SHR = 1.80; p < 0.001). WE-DS Model showed good diagnostic performances at internal and external validation. The identified upper limit of tumor burden for downstaging was AFP 20 ng/mL and up-to-twelve as sum of HCC number and diameter; AFP = 21–200 and up-to-ten; AFP = 201–500 and up-to-seven; AFP = 501–1000 and up-to-five.

Author's Conclusion:  In conclusion, the WE-DS Model, based on both morphologic and biologic data obtained at first referral in a large international (Western-Eastern) cohort of HCC patients listed for LT, allowed identifying an upper limit of tumor burden for downstaging beyond which successful LT, following downstaging, results in a futile transplantation
Methodical Notes

NEWCASTLE - OTTAWA Checklist: Cohort: 11 Bewertung(en)
Affonso, B. B. et al. Long-term outcomes of hepatocellular carcinoma that underwent chemoembolization for bridging or downstaging. World J Gastroenterol. 25. 5687-5701. 2019
Evidence level Methodical Notes Patient characteristics Interventions
Evidence level:  3

Study type:  Prospective cohort study
Funding sources:  

Conflict of Interests:  None

Randomization:  

Blinding:  Not described

Dropout rates:  
Total no. patients:  200

Recruiting Phase:  April 2011 to June 2014

Inclusion criteria:  For the Bridging-Group: Patients who were within MC or UNOS T2
For the Downstaging-Group:
Group 1 = 1 lesion > 5 and ≤ 8 cm
Group 2 = 2 or 3 lesions at least one > 3 and ≤ 5 cm with the sum of the
maximal tumor diameters ≤ 8 cm
Group 3 = 4 or 5 lesions each ≤ 3 cm with the sum of the maximal tumor
diameters ≤ 8 cm
Group 4 = 2 or 3 lesions at least one > 5cm with the sum of the maximal
tumor diameters ≤ 8 cm
Group 5 = total tumor diameter > 8 cm

Absence of vascular invasion based on cross-sectional MRI or CT
Absence of lymph node involvement by tumor or extra-hepatic tumor spread.

Criteria for successful downstaging:
Residual tumor(s) within MC for deceased donor liver transplant
In patients with 4 or 5 tumors, successful downstaging requires complete
necrosis (based on cross-sectional MRI or CT) of at least 1 to 2 tumor(s),
respectively, so that there will be no more than 3 lesions with viable tumor
each ≤ 3 cm to meet MC



Exclusion criteria:  Progression of tumor(s) to beyond inclusion criteria for downstaging and
bridging based on tumor size and number
Vascular invasion based on cross-sectional MRI or CT
Lymph node involvement by tumor or extra-hepatic spread of tumor
Interventions:  DEB-TACE procedures were performed under local anesthesia with
lidocaine 2%, sedation and analgesia, with venous administration of midazolam and
fentanyl.


Comparison:  
Notes: Evidence Level 3: Prospective cohort study
-Blinding was not described in this study



Author's conclusion:  Tumors initially exceeding the MC down-staged after DEB-TACE, can achieve
post-transplant survival and HCC recurrence-free probability, at five years, just
like patients within MC in patients undergoing DEB-TACE
Outcome Measures/results Primary  Five-year post-transplant overall survival, Recurrence-free Survival, Radiological response

Secondary  
Results:  After TACE, only patients within MC were transplanted. More patients
underwent LT in bridging group 65.9% (P = 0.001). Downstaging population
presented: higher number of nodules 2.81 (P = 0.001); larger total tumor diameter
8.09 (P = 0.001); multifocal HCC 78% (P = 0.001); more post-transplantation
recurrence 25% (P = 0.02). Patients with maximal tumor diameter up to 7.05 cm
were more likely to receive LT (P = 0.005). Median time on the waiting list was
significantly longer in downstaging group 10.6 mo (P = 0.028).

Five-year posttransplant overall survival:
Five-year posttransplant overall survival was 73.5% in downstaging and 72.3% bridging groups (P = 0.31)

Recurrence-free survival:
Recurrence-free survival was 62.1% in downstaging and 74.8%
bridging groups (P = 0.93).

Radiological response:
complete response was observed more frequently in bridging group (P = 0.004).

Agopian, V. G. et al. Complete pathologic response to pretransplant locoregional therapy for hepatocellular carcinoma defines cancer cure after liver transplantation: analysis of 501 consecutively treated patients. Ann Surg. 262. 536-45; discussion 543-5. 2015
Evidence level Methodical Notes Patient characteristics Interventions
Evidence level:  4

Study type:  Retrospective Cohort Study
Funding sources:  

Conflict of Interests:  The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Randomization:  

Blinding:  

Dropout rates:  
Total no. patients:  501

Recruiting Phase:  1994 - 2013

Inclusion criteria:  Not described

Exclusion criteria:  Not described
Interventions:  HCC recipients with complete pathologic response (cPR) (n = 126)


Comparison:  HCC recipients without cPR (n = 375)
Notes: Level of Evidence 4: Retrospective Cohort Study
-Single center experience

Author's conclusion:  Achieving cPR in patients with HCC receiving LRT strongly predicts tumor-free survival. Factors predicting cPR are identified, allowing for differential prioritization of HCC recipients based on their variable risks
of post-LT recurrence. Improving LRT strategies to maximize cPR would
enhance posttransplant cancer outcomes.
Outcome Measures/results Primary  Post-transplant survival, HCC recurrence

Secondary  
Results:  Of 501 patients, 272, 148, and 81 received 1, 2, and 3 or more LRT treatments. The overall, recurrence-free, and disease-specific survival at 1-, 3-, and 5 years was 86%, 71%, 63%; 84%, 67%, 60%; and 97%, 90%, 87%. Compared with recipients without cPR, cPR patients had significantly lower laboratory model for end-stage liver disease scores, pretransplant alpha fetoprotein, and cumulative tumor diameters; were more likely to have 1 lesion, tumors within Milan/University of California, San Francisco (UCSF) criteria, LRT that included ablation, and a favorable tumor response to LRT; and had superior 1-, 3-, and 5-year recurrence-free survival (92%, 79%, and 73% vs 81%, 63%, and 56%; P = 0.006) and disease-specific survival (100%, 100%, and 99% vs 96%, 89%, and 86%; P<0.001) with only 1 cancer-specific death and fewer recurrences (2.4% vs 15.2%; P < 0.001). Multivariate predictors
of cPR included a favorable post-LRT radiologic/alpha fetoprotein tumor
response, longer time interval from LRT to LT, and lower model for end-stage
liver disease score and maximum tumor diameter (C-statistic 0.75).

Chapman, W. C. et al. Liver Transplantation for Advanced Hepatocellular Carcinoma after Downstaging Without Up-Front Stage Restrictions. J Am Coll Surg. 224. 610-621. 2017
Evidence level Methodical Notes Patient characteristics Interventions
Evidence level:  4

Study type:  Retrospective Cohort Study
Funding sources:  Not described

Conflict of Interests:  None

Randomization:  

Blinding:  Not described

Dropout rates:  
Total no. patients:  284

Recruiting Phase:  January 1, 2002 - December 31, 2014

Inclusion criteria:  age older than 18 years at HCC diagnosis; a single nodule >5 cm, 2 to 3 nodules
at least 1 >3 cm, corresponding to stage III of the ALTSG Classification, or 4 nodules of any size (stage IVA1 of the ALTSG classification), or HCC with any tumor stage plus intrahepatic portal or hepatic vein involvement(stage IVA2 of the ALTSG classification)

Exclusion criteria:  Patients with regional lymph nodes or metastatic disease (including extrahepatic main portal or hepatic vein involvement), stage IVB of ALTSG classification, were excluded from this study.
Interventions:  Patients with HCC beyond Milan criteria who underwent LT after successful downstaging to within Milan criteria


Comparison:  Patients initially within Milan criteria. who received transplants in the same time period
Notes: Level of Evidence 4: Retrospective Cohort Study

Author's conclusion:  Patients with beyonde Milan criteria HCC who are otherwise candidates for LT should undergo aggressive attempts at downstaging without a priori exclusion. This highly selective approach allows for excellent long-term results, similar to patients presenting with earlier stage disease.
Outcome Measures/results Primary  Overall Survival, Recurrence of HCC

Secondary  Disease-specific survival, Death and hepatocellular carcinoma-related deaths, disease-free survival
Results:  Sixty-three of 210 (30%) eligible patients were downstaged and underwent transplantation; 14 additional downstaged and listed patients were withdrawn for the following reasons: death while waiting (n = 4), disease progression (n = 8), development of other malignancy (n = 1), and declined LT (n ¼ 1). Twelve patients underwent resection after downstaging and did not require LT.

Overall Surival
Survival for patients who were downstaged was similar to those who were within
Milan criteria initially (94.4%, 94.4%, 85.8%, and 62.6%;
and 93.2%, 83.0%, 74.1%, and 61.9%, respectively)(p = 0.29)

Recurrence of HCC
Recurrence of HCC at 5 years was similar between groups (10.9% vs 10.8%; p = 0.84).

Kardashian, A. et al. Liver Transplantation Outcomes in a U.S. Multicenter Cohort of 789 Patients with Hepatocellular Carcinoma Presenting Beyond Milan Criteria. Hepatology. . . 2020
Evidence level Methodical Notes Patient characteristics Interventions
Evidence level:  4

Study type:  Retrospective Cohort Study
Funding sources:  None

Conflict of Interests:  None

Randomization:  

Blinding:  

Dropout rates:  
Total no. patients:  4359

Recruiting Phase:  2002-2013

Inclusion criteria:  Adults aged 18 years or older with HCC who underwent LT from 2002 to 2013 regardless of tumor size, requirement for MELD exception points, follow-up time, or non-HCC-related death

Exclusion criteria:  Patients who had cholangiocarcinoma, mixed hepatocellular cholangiocarcinoma,
fibrolameller HCC, or hepatoblastoma
Interventions:  Examine post-LT outcomes, including HCC recurrence and survival, and the impact of pre-transplant LRT on the rate of successful downstaging in LT patients presenting with beyond-MC tumors


Comparison:  LT recipients transplanted within these study period whose tumors were radiographically within MC
Notes: Level of Evidence 4: Retrospective Cohort Study

-Blinding was not described



Author's conclusion:  In LT recipients with HCC presenting beyond MC, successful downstaging is predicted by wait time, alpha-fetoprotein response to LRT, and tumor burden, and results in excellent post-LT outcomes, justifying expansion of LT criteria. In LRT-NoDS patients, higher HCC-R compared to NoLRT-NoDS cannot be explained by clinicopathologic differences, suggesting a potentially aggravating role of LRT in patients with poor tumor biology that warrants further investigation.
Outcome Measures/results Primary  Overall survival (OS), recurrence-free survival (RFS), HCC recurrence (HCC-R)

Secondary  
Results:  OS, RFS, HCR
Five-year post-LT OS and RFS was higher in Milan Criteria (MC) (71.3% and 68.2%) compared to downstaged (DS) (64.3% and 59.5%), and lowest in NoDS (n=324; 60.2% and 53.8%; overall P<0.001). DS patients had superior RFS (60% vs
54%,P=0.043) and lower 5-year HCC-R (18% vs 32%,P<0.001) compared to NoDS, with further stratification by maximum radiologic tumor diameter (5-year HCC-R of 15.5% in DS/< 5cm and 39.1% in NoDS/>5cm,P<0.001). Multivariate predictors of downstaging included alpha-fetoprotein response to LRT, pathologic tumor number and size, and wait time >12 months. LRT-NoDS had greater HCC-R compared to NoLRT-NoDS (34.1% vs 26.1%,P<0.001), even after controlling for
clinicopathologic variables (HR=2.33,P<0.001) and inverse probability of treatment weighted propensity matching (HR=1.82,P<0.001).

Mehta, N. et al. National Experience on Down-Staging of Hepatocellular Carcinoma Before Liver Transplant: Influence of Tumor Burden, Alpha-Fetoprotein, and Wait Time. Hepatology. 71. 943-954. 2020
Evidence level Methodical Notes Patient characteristics Interventions
Evidence level:  4

Study type:  Retrospective Cohort Study
Funding sources:  Supported by the Clinical and Translational Core of the UCSF Liver Center

Conflict of Interests:  Nothing to report

Randomization:  

Blinding:  Not described

Dropout rates:  
Total no. patients:  3819

Recruiting Phase:  April 2012 - September 2015

Inclusion criteria:  Patients in the UNOS database (Standard Transplant Analysis and Research files released in December 2016) aged 18 years and older who received MELD exception
for HCC and underwent LT between April 2012 and September 2015.

Exclusion criteria:  Patients without evidence of HCC on explant who had not received LRT prior to LT
(HCC misdiagnosis) as well as patients with either intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma or mixed HCC/ cholangiocarcinoma on explant were excluded.
Interventions:  Patients with HCC always within Milan criteria


Comparison:  Two different down-staging groups classified by initial tumor burden meeting UNOS-DS criteria and “all-comers” down-staging (AC-DS) group with initial tumor burden beyond UNOS-DS criteria.
Notes: Level of Evidence 4: Retrospective Cohort Study

Author's conclusion:  Our results validated UNOS-DS criteria based on comparable 3-year survival between UNOS-DS and Milan groups. Additional refinements based on AFP and wait time may further improve post-LT outcomes in downstaging groups, especially given that reported 3-year recurrence was higher than in those always within Milan criteria.
Outcome Measures/results Primary  Post-LT survival

Secondary  Post-LT HCC recurrence
Results:  Post-LT survival
Kaplan-Meier 3-year post-LT survival was 83.2% for Milan, 79.1% for UNOS-DS (P = 0.17 vs. Milan), and 71.4% for AC-DS (P = 0.04 vs. Milan). Within down-staging groups, risk of post-LT death in multivariable analysis was increased in
SWR or MWR (hazard ratio [HR], 3.1; P = 0.005) and with alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) ≥ 100 ng/mL at LT (HR, 2.4; P = 0.009).

Post-LT HCC recurrence
The 3-year HCC recurrence probability was 6.9% for Milan, 12.8% for UNOS-DS, and 16.7% for AC-DS (P < 0.001). In down-staging groups, AFP ≥ 100 (HR, 2.6; P = 0.02) was the only independent predictor of HCC recurrence.

Ravaioli, M. et al. Long term results of down-staging and liver transplantation for patients with hepatocellular carcinoma beyond the conventional criteria. Sci Rep. 9. 3781. 2019
Evidence level Methodical Notes Patient characteristics Interventions
Evidence level:  4

Study type:  Retrospective observational study
Funding sources:  

Conflict of Interests:  The authors declare no competing interests.

Randomization:  

Blinding:  Not described

Dropout rates:  
Total no. patients:  308

Recruiting Phase:  2003 - 2013

Inclusion criteria:  Patients with HCC listed for LT

Exclusion criteria:  AFP higher than 400 ng/dL and the absence of macro-vascular or biliary
invasion.
Interventions:  


Comparison:  
Notes: Level of Evidence 4: Retrospective observational study

Author's conclusion:  In conclusion, our study measured the price to be paid by transplant patients outside conventional HCC criteria (and within the Bologna criteria) after effective or ineffective down-staging procedures. The long-term
outcome of down-staging candidates was poorer than that achievable with the conventional criteria, particularly for cases not meeting the protocol. Nevertheless, it can be considered acceptable since it is much better than that
obtained with non-LT treatments.
Outcome Measures/results Primary  Recurrence rate, post-LT survival, average treatment effect (ATE)

Secondary  
Results:  Recurrence rate
After LT, the tumor recurrence rate was significantly different: MC 7.6%, Down-Achieved 20.9%, Down-not Achieved 31.6%, and No-Down 30.4% (p < 0.001).

Post-LT survival
The survival rates at 5 years were: 63% in Down-Achieved, 62% in Down-not Achieved, 63% in No-Down, and 77% in MC (p = n.s.). The only variable related to a better outcome was the effective down-staging to T2 at the histological evaluation of the explanted liver: recurrence rate = 7.8% vs. 26% (p < 0.001) and 5-year patient survival = 76% vs. 67% (p < 0.05).

The ATE estimation showed that the mean survival of T3-LT candidates was significantly better than that of T3 patients ineligible for LT [83.3 vs 39.2 months (+44.6 months); p < 0.001].

Sapisochin, G. et al. The extended Toronto criteria for liver transplantation in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma: A prospective validation study. Hepatology. 64. 2077-2088. 2016
Evidence level Methodical Notes Patient characteristics Interventions
Evidence level:  3

Study type:  Prospective cohort study
Funding sources:  

Conflict of Interests:  Nothing to report

Randomization:  

Blinding:  

Dropout rates:  "Herein, we validate our original data with a new prospective
cohort and report the long-term follow-up (10-years) using an intention-to-treat analysis."
Total no. patients:  362 patients in cohort 1 (January 1996 - August 2008), 243 patients in cohort 2 (September 2008 - December 2012)

Recruiting Phase:  January 1996 - December 2012

Inclusion criteria:  1. Tumor confined to the liver—i.e., no pulmonary or nodal metastases
2. No radiologic evidence of venous or biliary tumor thrombus
3. No cancer-related symptoms. These symptoms were defined as a weight loss over 10 kg and/or an increase in the Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group score of 1 point over a period of 3 months. Also, patients had to have a performance
status of 0.(1)
4. A mandatory percutaneous tumor biopsy of the largest lesion (per protocol) that determined the lesion to be not poorly differentiated as determined by one of the two expert liver pathologists at our institution (no interobserver pathological
evaluation was performed). Biopsy was only required for those patients who exceeded the Milan criteria but were within the ETC and was done percutaneously in all cases. Those patients with tumors that exceeded the Milan criteria who
had massive ascites and/or coagulopathy that precluded a biopsy of the tumor were not included on the waiting list. Even though a biopsy was not required to undergo LT in the M group, some tumors were biopsied due to uncertainty in the
diagnosis and others were referred for transplant with a biopsy already performed elsewhere

Exclusion criteria:  
Interventions:  Patients with exceeded tumors beyond Milan criteria (M+)


Comparison:  Patients with tumors within Milan criteria
Notes: Level of Evidence 3: Prospective Cohort Study

Author's conclusion:  Tumor differentiation and cancer-related symptoms of HCC can be used to select patients with advanced HCC who are appropriate candidates for liver transplantation; alpha-fetoprotein level limitations should be incorporated in the
listing criteria for patients within or beyond the Milan criteria.
Outcome Measures/results Primary  Actuarial survival from transplant

Secondary  
Results:  Actuarial survival
For the validation cohort 2, the actuarial survival from transplant for the M+ group was similar to that of the M group at 1 year, 3 years, and 5 years: 94%, 76%, and 69% versus 95%, 82%, and 78% (P = 0.3). For the combined cohorts 1 and 2, there were no significant differences in the 10-year actuarial survival from transplant between groups. On an intention-to-treat basis, the dropout rate was higher in the M+ group and the 5-year and 10-year survival rates from listing were decreased in the M+ group. An alpha-fetoprotein level >500 ng/mL predicted poorer outcomes for both the M and M+ groups.

Sinha, J. et al. Are There Upper Limits in Tumor Burden for Down-Staging of Hepatocellular Carcinoma to Liver Transplant? Analysis of the All-Comers Protocol. Hepatology. 70. 1185-1196. 2019
Evidence level Methodical Notes Patient characteristics Interventions
Evidence level:  3

Study type:  Prospective cohort study
Funding sources:  Biostatistics Core of the UCSF Liver Center (National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases P30 DK026473)

Conflict of Interests:  Drs Mehta and Yao received institutional research grant from FUJIFilm Wako.

Randomization:  

Blinding:  

Dropout rates:  "We compared the intention-to-treat (ITT) outcomes of DS in 74 patients in the AC
group and 133 patients in the UCSF-DS group."
Total no. patients:  133 patients enrolled in the UCSF-Group, 74 patients enrolled in the AC-group

Recruiting Phase:  January 2005 - January 2015

Inclusion criteria:  UCSF-DS Group
HCC exceeding UNOS T2 criteria but meeting one of the following:
1. Single lesion ≤ 8 cm
2. 2 or 3 lesions each ≤ 5 cm with the sum of the largest tumor diameters ≤ 8 cm
3. 4 or 5 lesions each ≤ 3 cm with the sum of the largest tumor diameters ≤ 8 cm
Absence of vascular invasion based on cross-sectional imaging

AC-Group
HCC exceeding UCSF-DS protocol by any of the following:
1. HCC tumor number
2. HCC tumor size
3. Total HCC tumor diameter
Absence of vascular invasion based on cross-sectional imaging



Exclusion criteria:  UCDS-Group
1. Progression of tumor(s) beyond inclusion criteria for DS based on tumor size and number
2. Any evidence of extrahepatic, lymphatic, or vascular tumor spread

AC-Group
1. Progression of tumor burden beyond Milan criteria after initial successful DS
2. Development of a new HCC lesion(s)
3. Any evidence of extrahepatic, lymphatic, or vascular tumor spread
Interventions:  Outcomes for DS in patients with initial tumor burden beyond the UCSF-DS criteria,
defined as “all-comers” (AC)


Comparison:  Outcomes for patients meeting UCSF-DS criteria
Notes: Level of Evidence 3: Mixed prospective and retrospective cohort study
Patients in the AC protocol for DS were prospectively enrolled, clinical data were collected retrospective.





Author's conclusion:  We observed a significantly lower LT probability and inferior ITT survival with DS in the AC group versus the UCSF-DS group. Our results suggest that an upper limit in tumor burden exists beyond which successful LT after DS becomes an unrealistic goal.
Outcome Measures/results Primary  Downstaging results, Posttransplant survival, HCC recurrence

Secondary  
Results:  Downstaging
Successful DS to Milan was observed in 64.8% of the AC group versus 84.2% of the UCSF-DS group (P < 0.001). The sum of tumor number and largest tumor diameter was significantly associated with successful DS (hazard ratio [HR] 0.87, P < 0.05). The cumulative probability of dropout within 1 year and 3 years was 53.5% and 80.0%, respectively, for AC versus 25.0% and 36.1%, respectively, for UCSF-DS (P < 0.0001). Factors predicting dropout included sum of tumor number and largest tumor diameter greater than 8 (HR 1.79, P = 0.049) and Child class B and C (HR 2.54, P = 0.001). The AC group also had a significantly lower liver transplant (LT) rate (13.5% versus 59.0%, P < 0.001).

Posttransplant survival
ITT survival at 1 year and 5 years was 77.4% and 21.1%, respectively, in AC versus 85.5% and 56.0%, respectively, in UCSF-DS (P < 0.001).

HCC recurrence
The AC group also had a significantly lower 5-year recurrence-
free probability compared with the UCSF-DS group (40.0% versus 86.1%, P < 0.01).
Three of 10 patients in the AC group who underwent LT developed HCC recurrence

Toso, C. et al. Downstaging prior to liver transplantation for hepatocellular carcinoma: advisable but at the price of an increased risk of cancer recurrence - a retrospective study. Transpl Int. 32. 163-172. 2019
Evidence level Methodical Notes Patient characteristics Interventions
Evidence level:  4

Study type:  Retrospective cohort study
Funding sources:  The authors have declared no funding.

Conflict of Interests:  The authors have declared no conflicts of interest.

Randomization:  

Blinding:  

Dropout rates:  
Total no. patients:  455 patients were listed, 286 were transplanted

Recruiting Phase:  February 2004 - October 2017

Inclusion criteria:  Patients with total Tumour Volume (TTV) continuously ≤115 cm3 and alpha fetoprotein (AFP) continuously ≤400 ng/ml, and those with originally more advanced HCC (with no size, number, nor AFP limit) successfully downstaged and stable within TTV115/AFP400 for more than 3 months. Of note, patients entered into the database when they fulfilled TTV115/AFP400 according to mRECIST criteria (modified Response Evaluation Criteria in Solid Tumours) with no macro-vascular invasion
or extra-hepatic metastasis.

Exclusion criteria:  Patients not reaching TTV115/AFP400 after downstaging, patients with macro-vascular invasion or extra-hepatic metastasis
Interventions:  


Comparison:  
Notes: Level of Evidence 4: Retrospective Cohort Study

Author's conclusion:  Overall, despite an expected increase in post-transplant HCC recurrence, similar survivals can be achieved with and without downstaging, using the TTV115/AFP400
transplantation criteria, and including patients with advanced original
HCCs. Downstaging should continue to be performed.
Outcome Measures/results Primary  Disease free survival (DFS), HCC recurrence

Secondary  
Results:  Patients downstaged to TTV115/AFP400 (n = 29) demonstrated similar disease-free survivals (DFS, 74% vs. 80% at 5 years, P = 0.949), but a trend to more recurrences (14% vs. 5.8%, P = 0.10) than those always within TTV115/AFP400 (n = 257). Similarly, patients downstaged to Milan criteria (n = 80) demonstrated similar DFS (76% vs. 86% at 5 years, P = 0.258), but more recurrences (11% vs. 1.7%, P = 0.001) than those always within Milan (n = 177). Among patients downstaged to Milan, those originally beyond TTV115/AFP400 (n = 27) had similar outcomes as those originally beyond Milan, but within TTV115/AFP400 (n = 53). However, the likelihood of being within Milan at transplant was lower for
patients with more advanced original HCCs (P < 0.0001).

Victor, D. W., 3rd et al. Outcomes of Liver Transplantation for Hepatocellular Carcinoma Beyond the University of California San Francisco Criteria: A Single-center Experience. Transplantation. 104. 113-121. 2020
Evidence level Methodical Notes Patient characteristics Interventions
Evidence level:  4

Study type:  Retrospective Cohort Study
Funding sources:  The authors declare no funding.

Conflict of Interests:  The authors declare no conflict of interests.

Randomization:  

Blinding:  

Dropout rates:  
Total no. patients:  220

Recruiting Phase:  April 2008 - June 2017

Inclusion criteria:  Age >18, pretransplant diagnosis of HCC, no evidence of extrahepatic disease, and
histologically proven HCC in the explant liver.

Exclusion criteria:  Patients with radiographic evidence of tumor thrombus, extrahepatic disease, mixed tumors or multiple organ involvement on explant pathology were excluded.
Interventions:  


Comparison:  
Notes: Level of Evidence 4: Retrospective Cohort Study
-Single center study, relatively small number of patients involved


Author's conclusion:  Selective patients outside of traditional size criteria can be effectively transplanted with equivalent survival to patients with smaller tumors, even when pathologic tumor burden is considered. Tumor stability over
time can be used to help select patients for transplantation.
Outcome Measures/results Primary  Patient survival at 1, 3, and 5 years after OLT.

Secondary  HCC recurrence
Results:  Patient survival at 1, 3, and 5 years after OLT.
Two hundred twenty HCC patients were transplanted, 138 inside Milan, 23 inside UCSF, and 59 beyond UCSF criteria. Patient survival was equivalent at 1, 3, or 5 years despite pathologic tumor size. The 1-year survival for the Milan cohort was 92%, UCSF 100%, and beyond UCSF 97%. Three-year survival was also not significantly different with the groups showing 87%, 88%, and 87%, respectively. Even 5-year survival was closely mirrored in all groups with 81%, 88%, and
80% survivals (Figure 1). DFS was noted to be similar among groups with 1-year survival for Milan 100%, inside UCSF 95.5%, and outside UCSF at 91.1%. DFS at 5 years revealed 92% survival for Milan, 88.6% inside UCSF, and 85.4% outside UCSF (P = 0.53; Figure 2).

HCC recurrence
In patients outside UCSF, tumor recurrence was equivalent to Milan and UCSF criteria recipients who waited >9 months from LRT. Although tumor recurrence was more likely in outside of UCSF patients (3% versus 9% versus 15%; P = 0.02), recurrence-free survival only trended toward significance among the groups (P = 0.053).

Yao, F. Y. et al. Downstaging of hepatocellular cancer before liver transplant: long-term outcome compared to tumors within Milan criteria. Hepatology. 61. 1968-77. 2015
Evidence level Methodical Notes Patient characteristics Interventions
Evidence level:  3

Study type:  Prospective Cohort Study
Funding sources:  This work is supported in part by a grant from the National Institute of Health to the University of California, San Francisco Liver Center (P01DK26743)

Conflict of Interests:  Not stated

Randomization:  

Blinding:  

Dropout rates:  Intention-to-treat analysis was performed
Total no. patients:  122 patients in the down staging group, 488 patients in the retrospective control group

Recruiting Phase:  March 2002 - January 2012

Inclusion criteria:  HCC exceeding UNOS T2 criteria but meeting one of the following criteria:
1. Single lesion ≤ 8 cm
2. 2 or 3 lesions each ≤ 5cm with the sum of the maximal tumor diameters ≤ 8 cm.
3. 4 or 5 lesions each ≤ 3cm with the sum of the maximal tumor diameters ≤ 8 cm.
Absence of vascular invasion based on cross-sectional imaging

Exclusion criteria:  1 Progression of tumor(s) to beyond inclusion criteria for down-staging based on tumor size and number.
2 Invasion of a major hepatic vessel based on cross-sectional imaging or Doppler ultrasonography of the abdomen.
3 Lymph node involvement by tumor or extra-hepatic spread of tumor.
Interventions:  Patients with HCC undergoing down-staging to within Milan/UNOS T2 criteria before liver transplantation


Comparison:  Patients with HCC meeting T2 criteria without requiring down-staging
Notes: Level of evidence 3: Prospective Cohort Study
-A retrospective component of this study was the collection of data in a control group of patients with HCC meeting T2 criteria without requiring down-staging.
-Single center study

Author's conclusion:  Successful down-staging of HCC to within T2 criteria was associated with a low rate of HCC recurrence and excellent post-transplant survival, comparable to those meeting T2 criteria without down-staging. Due to the small number of patients with 4–5 tumors, further investigations are needed to confirm the efficacy of down-staging in this subgroup.
Outcome Measures/results Primary  Post-transplant survival, HCC recurrence

Secondary  
Results:  In the down-staging group, 64 patients (54.2%) had received LT, and 5 (7.5%) developed HCC recurrence. Two of the 5 patients with HCC recurrence had 4–5 tumors at presentation. The 1- and 2-year cumulative probabilities for dropout (competing risk) were 24.1% and 34.2% in the down-staging group, versus 20.3% and 25.6% in the T2 group (p=0.04). The Kaplan-Meier 5-year post-transplant survival and recurrence-free probabilities were 77.8% and 90.8%, respectively, in the down-staging group, versus 81% and 88%, respectively, in the T2 group (p=0.69 and p=0.66, respectively). The 5-year intention-to-treat survival was 56.1% in the down-staging group, versus 63.3% in the T2 group (p=0.29).

HCC Operation

Schlüsselfrage:

Wann ist eine Operation bei einem Patienten mit HCC indiziert, wie wird diese durchgeführt, wie soll die Nachsorge erfolgen?

Inhalt: 13 Literaturstellen
Literaturstelle Evidenzlevel Studientyp
Bruix, J. 2015 2 RCT, multi-institutional (America, Asia, Europe)
Chen, M. S. 2006 2 RCT, single center (China)
Eguchi, S. 2008 3 nationwide follow-up survey study (Japan)
Feng, K. 2012 2 RCT, single center (China)
Huang, J. 2010 2 RCT, single center (China)
Lee, J. H. 2015 2 RCT, multi-center (Korea)
Mazzaferro, V. 2006 2 RCT, multi-center (Italy)
Ng, K. K. C. 2017 2 RCT, single-center (China)
Roayaie, S. 2015 3 multiregional, longitudinal cohort study (Asia-Pacific, Europe, North America)
Takayama, T. 2000 2 RCT, single-center (Japan)
Torzilli, G. 2013 3 multicentric, retrospective observational study (Asia, America, Europe)
Wong, J. S. 2013 3 prospective cohort study, single center (China)
Yin, L. 2014 2 RCT, single-center (China)


OXFORD (2011) Appraisal Sheet: RCT: 9 Bewertung(en)
Funding Sources:  Funding: Bayer HealthCare Pharmaceuticals and Onyx Pharmaceuticals.
- The funder was responsible for the study design and data collection and analysed and interpreted data, in collaboration with all authors. The funder also had input into the writing of the manuscript. JB and JML had full access to all of the study data, and all authors had access upon request. The corresponding author had access to the study data and had the final responsibility to submit the manuscript for publication.

COI:  - G-YC reports grants from Bayer outside the submitted work.
- GM reports employment and stock ownership from Bayer HealthCare during the conduct of the study.
- HCL reports personal fees from Bayer outside the submitted work.
- JB reports personal fees from Daichi, AbbVie, Arquile, Bayer, Biocompatibles, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Novartis, Gilead, Terumo, Syrtex, and Roche outside the submitted work.
- JML reports personal fees from Bayer HealthCare, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Lilly, GSK, Nanostring, Biosphere Medical, Boehringer Ingelheim, Blueprint Medicines, and Celsion outside the submitted work.
- LB reports personal fees from Bayer, Bristol-Myers Squibb, MSD, Bracco, and Syrtex outside the submitted work.
- FS reports employment by Bayer HealthCare during the conduct of this study.
- M-ALB reports employment by Bayer HealthCare during the conduct of this study.
- WYT reports grants from Samil Pharm and personal fees from Gilead Sciences Korea outside the submitted work.
- MM reports personal fees from Bayer HealthCare outside the submitted work.
- VM reports personal fees from BTG and Bayer HealthCare outside the submitted work.
- TS, JC, K-HH, MK, SR, TT, RTP, JY, and KSL declare no competing interests


Randomization:  Randomisation was done in a parallel, stratified fashion using permuted blocks (block size of four) via a computer-generated system. Sequences were generated by an internal randomisation group and the list loaded into an interactive voice-response system (IVRS).

Blinding:  The study was double-blinded. Sorafenib and placebo tablets were identical in appearance to ensure treatment was masked.
Outcomes were assessed by independent radiological assessment.

Dropout Rate/ITT-Analysis:  - Loss to follow-up 1 % (sorafenib) or less (placebo).
- Efficacy endpoints were analysed in the intention-to-treat population, defined as all randomly assigned patients.
- 553 patients in the sorafenib group and 554 in the placebo group received treatment as initially assigned. Six patients assigned to placebo received one or more dose of sorafenib, and hence the safety analysis population consisted of 559 patients in the sorafenib group and 548 in the placebo group.

Notes:  
Evidence level 2: RCT
Bruix, J. et al. Adjuvant sorafenib for hepatocellular carcinoma after resection or ablation (STORM): a phase 3, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet Oncol. 16. 1344-54. 2015
Population Intervention - Comparison Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  2

Study type:  RCT, multi-institutional (America, Asia, Europe)

Number of Patient:  Of 1602 patients screened, 1114 met eligibility criteria and were randomly assigned: 556 to the sorafenib group and 558 to the placebo group

Recruitung Phase:  between Aug 15, 2008, and Nov 17, 2010

Inclusion Criteria:  - men and women aged 18 years or older with a confirmed first diagnosis of HCC suitable for curative treatment.
- Patients were required to have an eligibility scan (CT or MRI of chest, abdomen, and pelvis) confirming complete radiological response by masked central independent review between 3 and 7 weeks after curative treatment.
- Maximum tumour load before curative therapy comprising one lesion of any size for resection, or a single lesion 5 cm or smaller or two or three lesions each 3 cm or smaller in size for ablation. Other eligibility criteria included a Child-Pugh score of 5–7 (Child-Pugh score 7 allowed only in the absence of ascites), Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group performance status of 0, and alpha fetoprotein concentration lower than 400 ng/mL.
- Patients were also required to have adequate bone marrow, liver, and renal function as assessed by laboratory tests done with samples taken within 14 days before randomisation, including haemoglobin, bilirubin, platelet count, neutrophil count, alkaline phosphatase, alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, and serum creatinine.


Exclusion Criteria:  Exclusion criteria included:
- recurrent HCC
- macrovascular invasion
- a history of cardiovascular disease (myocardial infarction >6 months before study entry was allowed)
- infection with HIV or other clinically serious infections
- seizure disorder requiring drugs
- previous anticancer treatment for HCC, including sorafenib.
Intervention:  - 400 mg twice a day of oral sorafenib for a maximum treatment period of 4 years (204 weeks ± 1) or until disease recurrence.
- treatment interruptions and up to two levels of dose reductions (first to 400 mg once a day and then to 400 mg every other day) were allowed if drug-related adverse events were recorded.


Comparison:  - 400 mg twice a day of oral placebo for a maximum treatment period of 4 years (204 weeks ± 1) or until disease recurrence.
- treatment interruptions and up to two levels of dose reductions (first to 400 mg once a day and then to 400 mg every other day) were allowed if drug-related adverse events were recorded.
Primary:  recurrence-free survival (RFS), defined as the time from randomisation to the first documented disease recurrence by independent radiological assessment or death by any cause.

Secondary:  - time to recurrence, defined as the time from randomisation to the first documented disease recurrence by independent radiological assessment
- overall survival, defined as the time from randomisation to death by any cause.

Results:  
Median RFS according to the independent radiological assessment
- Sorafenib: 33.3 months (95% CI 27.6–44.0 vs placebo: 33.7 months (27.6–39.0)
- No significant treatment effect of sorafenib on RFS was recorded (HR 0.940; 95% CI 0.780–1.134; one-sided p=0.26).
- Subgroup analysis of RFS by factors region, risk of recurrence, Child-Pugh status, primary treatment, age, sex, and cause of underlying liver disease, showed no significant treatment effect of sorafenib.

Median Time to recurrence according to the independent radiological assessment
- sorafenib: 38.5 months (95% CI 30.4–not estimable) vs. placebo: 35.8 months (30.3–41.4)
- No significant treatment effect of sorafenib on time to recurrence was recorded (HR 0.891; 95% CI 0.735–1.081; one-sided p=0.12)
- Subgroup analysis of time to recurrence by factors Child-Pugh status, previous curative treatment, or risk of recurrence showed no significant treatment effect of sorafenib.

Median overall survival
- The median follow-up for overall survival was 23.0 months (IQR 12.7–36.0) in the sorafenib group and 22.0 months (IQR 14.4–35.5) in the placebo group.
- No significant treatment effect of sorafenib on overall survival was shown (HR 0.995; 95% CI 0.761–1.300; one-sided p=0.48). Median overall survival was not reached in either treatment group.


Author's Conclusion:  In conclusion, this phase 3 randomised study of sorafenib as adjuvant treatment after potentially curative therapy for HCC showed no significant treatment effect with sorafenib, with regards to RFS, time to recurrence, or overall survival. The adjuvant setting remains an area of high unmet need in HCC management and further research into strategies to prevent HCC recurrence is needed.
Methodical Notes

Funding Sources:  Supported by the grant of Sciences and Technology Committee of Guangdo Province, China, 2002

COI:  not addressed

Randomization:  Randomization was done by using random numbers generated from a computer in a central registry for this study.

Blinding:  no blinding reported, but outcome (survival) objective

Dropout Rate/ITT-Analysis:  from 90 patients randomized to PLAT, 19 withdrew consent and were treated with surgical resection.
Intent-to-treat-analysis were performed and additionally one analysis after post-randomization exclusion (without the 19 patients) - results did not differ significantly.


Notes:  
Evidence level 2: RCT
Chen, M. S. et al. A prospective randomized trial comparing percutaneous local ablative therapy and partial hepatectomy for small hepatocellular carcinoma. Ann Surg. 243. 321-8. 2006
Population Intervention - Comparison Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  2

Study type:  RCT, single center (China)

Number of Patient:  180 patients randomized

Recruitung Phase:  November 1999 - June 2004

Inclusion Criteria:  Inclusion criteria for this study were as follows:
1. age 18 to 75 years
2. a solitary HCC smaller than 5 cm in diameter
3. no extrahepatic metastasis
4. no radiologic evidence of invasion into the major portal/hepatic vein branches
5. good liver function with Pugh-Child Class A, with no history of encephalopathy, ascites refractory to diuretics or variceal bleeding
6. indocyanine green retention at 15 minutes (ICG-R15) <30%
7. a platelet count of >40,000/mm3
8. no previous treatment of HCC
9. patient should be suitable to be treated by either surgical resection or PLAT



Exclusion Criteria:  none stated
Intervention:  percutaneous local ablative therapy (PLAT): Radio frequence ablation (RFA)

Comparison:  Surgical resection
Primary:  overall survival rate

Secondary:  

Results:  The 1-, 2-, 3-, and 4-year overall survival rates
- PLAT group: 94.4%, 79.8%, 68.6%, 65.9%
- surgical resection group: 93.3%, 82.3%, 73.4%, 64.0%
- no significant difference between the 2 groups

Author's Conclusion:  This prospective randomized trial showed PLAT to give the same overall and disease-free survivals as surgical resection for patients with solitary and small HCC. PLAT has the advantage over liver resection in giving a better short-term postoperative results because PLAT is a less invasive procedure.
Methodical Notes

Funding Sources:  This study was supported by the Key Projects Fund of the Military Medical and Health Research Fund of China (2004–2007) (Project Number 02Z005) and National Basic Research Program ("973" Program No. 2005CB522605).

COI:  The authors who have taken part in this study declared that they do not have anything to disclose regarding funding or conflict of interest with respect to this manuscript.

Randomization:  Randomization was performed with stratification according to the tumor diameter (62 cm vs. >2 cm but <4 cm="" the="" sealed="" numbers="" were="" generated="" by="" a="" computerized="" random="" number="" generator="" br="">
Blinding:  patients and physicians were not blinded

Dropout Rate/ITT-Analysis:  Seven patients (4.2%) were lost to follow-up (four in the RES group and three in the RFA group). All patients with protocol violations, intrahepatic metastases, misdiagnosis on postoperative pathology and residual tumors were kept in their respective groups for intention-to-treat analysis of survival and recurrence.

Notes:  
Evidence level 2: RCT
Feng, K. et al. A randomized controlled trial of radiofrequency ablation and surgical resection in the treatment of small hepatocellular carcinoma. J Hepatol. 57. 794-802. 2012
Population Intervention - Comparison Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  2

Study type:  RCT, single center (China)

Number of Patient:  168 patients met the inclusion criteria and were randomized to the two treatment groups

Recruitung Phase:  January 2005 to March 2008

Inclusion Criteria:  (1) Diagnosis of HCC confirmed at our hospital.
(2) Intrahepatic number of tumors not greater than 2 and a maximum tumordiameter of <4 cm="" br=""> (3) Child–Pugh class A or B liver disease.
(4) No intrahepatic and extrahepatic metastases.
(5) No invasion of the portal vein, the hepatic vein trunk or secondarybranches.
(6) Indocyanine green retention rates of <30% at 15 min (ICG-15).
(7) No evidence of coagulopathy, with a platelet count >50*10^9/L and aprolonged prothrombin time of <5 s="" br=""> (8) No other anti-tumor therapy received before treatment.
(9) All included patients had to be suitable candidates for both RES and RFA.

Exclusion Criteria:  (1) Patients met the inclusion criteria but declined to participate.
(2) Patients with severe portal hypertension, a history of esophageal variceal hemorrhage, severe hypersplenism syndrome, or refractory ascites.
(3) Patients whose permanent pathology after treatment suggested meta-static liver cancer or primary liver cancer of another tissue type.
(4) Patients who were willing to receive a liver transplantation.
Intervention:  Radiofrequency ablation

Comparison:  Surgical resection
Primary:  36-month overall survival rate

Secondary:  - recurrence-free survival rate
- overall recurrence rate
- complications

Results:  1-, 2-, and 3-year overall survival rates
- RES-group: 96.0%, 87.6%, 74.8%
- RFA-group: 93.1%, 83.1%, 67.2%
recurrence-free survival rates
- RES-group: 90.6%, 76.7%,61.1%
- RFA-group: 86.2%, 66.6%, 49.6%
There were no significant differences between the two groups in overall survival and recurrence-free survival rates.
1-, 2-, and 3-year overall recurrence rates
- RES-group: 9.4%, 23.3%, and 37.7%
- RFA-group: 13.8%, 32.3%,and 49.6%
There were no significant differences between the two groups (log-rank test,chi-quadrat= 2.425,p= 0.119)
overall complication rate
- RES-group: 21.4%
- RFA-group: 9.5%
Chi-Quadrat= 6.269,p= 0.017

Author's Conclusion:  In conclusion, for HCC patients with tumor diameters smaller than 4 cm and no more than two tumors, percutaneous RFA was equivalent to surgical resection for overall survival, but it was associated with increased local recurrence because of the residual tumors. For the treatment of small HCCs located at specific sites of the liver, open or laparoscopic surgery may be the better choice. Compared to surgical resection, RFA is less invasive.
Methodical Notes

Funding Sources:  This study has not received any support from industry or private corporations.

COI:  This study has not received any support from industry or private corporations.

Randomization:  An independent statistician from the registry center assigned the patients to 2 groups (the RFA group and the RES group) beforehand by a blocking/stratification randomization method with a computer.

Blinding:  Because of the nature of the interventions, the double-blind technique was not used

Dropout Rate/ITT-Analysis:  - 25 patients were lost to follow-up (18 in the RES group and 7 in the RFA group).
- All 115 assigned in the RFA group and 115 patients in the RES group were included in the intention-to-treat analysis for survival and recurrence.
- Of note, 7 patients in the RFA group withdrew their consent after interventions were exposed. They chose and were treated with RES.

Notes:  
Evidence level 2: RCT
Huang, J. et al. A randomized trial comparing radiofrequency ablation and surgical resection for HCC conforming to the Milan criteria. Ann Surg. 252. 903-12. 2010
Population Intervention - Comparison Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  2

Study type:  RCT, single center (China)

Number of Patient:  230 patents randomized: 115 assigned in the RFA group, 115 patients in the RES group.

Recruitung Phase:  March 2003 to January 2005

Inclusion Criteria:  1. Diagnosis of HCC confirmed in our hospital
2. Met the Milan criteria: single HCC≤5 cm or up to 3 nodules, each <3cm
3. No extrahepatic metastasis or obvious vascular invasion
4. Liver function of Child-Pugh Class A or B
5. No previous or simultaneous malignancies
6. Indocyanine green retention at 15 minutes (ICG-R15)<20%
7. Absence of evident bleeding tendency: a platelet count>50×10^9/L or correctable by transfusion, a prothrombin time prolon-gation of<5 seconds="" br=""> 8. HBV-infected patient with a HBV-DNA-PCR quantitation of<10^5copies/mL
9. No previous treatment of HCC
10. Suitable to be treated by either RES or RFA

Exclusion Criteria:  1. Patients with severe portal hypertension: with history of esophageal variceal hemorrhage, with large esophageal varices,or refractory ascites
2. Patient who is willing to receive liver transplantation
Intervention:  Radiofrequency Ablation

Comparison:  Surgical Resection
Primary:  overall survival

Secondary:  recurrence-free survival
overall recurrence
early-stage recurrence

Results:  1-, 2-, 3-, 4-, and 5-year overall survival rates
- RFA-group: 86.96%, 76.52%, 69.57%,66.09%, 54.78%
- RES-group: 98.26%, 96.52%, 92.17%, 82.60%, 75.65%
1-, 2-, 3-, 4-, and 5-year recurrence-free survival rates
- RFA-group: 81.74%, 59.13%, 46.08%, 33.91%, 28.69%
- RES-group: 85.22%, 73.92%, 60.87%, 54.78%, 51.30%.
Overall survival (P=0.001) and recurrence-free survival (P=0.017) were significantly higher in the RES group than in the RFA group.
Overall recurrence
- RFA-group: 73
- RES-group: 48
Overall recurrence rate was significantly higher in the RFA-group than in the RES-group by intention-to-treat analysis (P=0.001) as well as by actual intervention analysis (69 vs 52,P=0.002)
Early-stage recurrence (<2 years="" u="">
- significantly higher in the RFA group than in the RES group (44 vs 26, P=0.010 ITT-analysis; 42 vs 28, P=0.045 actual intervention analysis)
Subgroup analyses
- overall survival in (1) solitary HCC≤3cm,(2) solitary HCC 3cm-5cm: Significant differences of RES’s superiority in survival were shown in both subgroups ((1) P=0.030;(2) P=0.046)

Author's Conclusion:  Surgical resection may provide better survival and lower recurrence rates than RFA for patients with HCC to the Milan criteria.
Methodical Notes

Funding Sources:  Supported by Green Cross Cell Corp (Seoul, Korea). This study was designed by the sponsor in conjunction with the principal academic investigators. Data were managed in parallel by the sponsor and the principal investigators.

COI:  - Joon Hyeok Lee has received grantsfrom Green Cross Cell Corp
- Joon Hyeok Lee, Jung-Hwan Yoon, Young-Suk Lim, Jong Eun Yeon, Yoon Jun Kim, Kang Mo Kim, Geum-Youn Gwak and Su Jong Yu recieved grants and/or lecture fees from or worked on advisory boards of several other pharma companies
- The remaining authors disclose no conflicts

Randomization:  Random assignment was performed through a central telephone system using computer-generated, permuted blocks with a block size of 4 or 6 and stratified according to study center.

Blinding:  - open-labeled trial
- for tumor assessments, scans were reviewed by 2 independent radiologists who were unaware of the group assignment

Dropout Rate/ITT-Analysis:  - efficacy outcomes were assessed according to the intention-to-treat principle.
- Among 230 randomized patients, 226 (114 in the immunotherapy group and 112 in the control group) were included in the efficacy analysis: 4 patients were excluded from the efficacy analysis because they violated the inclusion and exclusion criteria (1 in the immunotherapy group and 3 in the control group)
- 1 patient in the immunotherapy group was lost to follow-up evaluation and 10 patients in the immunotherapy group discontinued intervention.
- 15 patients in the control group were lost to follow-up
- All 230 randomized patients were included in the safety population

Notes:  
Evidence level 2: RCT
Lee, J. H. et al. Adjuvant immunotherapy with autologous cytokine-induced killer cells for hepatocellular carcinoma. Gastroenterology. 148. 1383-91.e6. 2015
Population Intervention - Comparison Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  2

Study type:  RCT, multi-center (Korea)

Number of Patient:  230 randomized patients: 115 in intervention group, 115 in control group

Recruitung Phase:  between July 3, 2008 and November 29, 2012

Inclusion Criteria:  - adults between 20 and 80
- HCC of pretreatment clinical stage I or II
- who had undergone curative treatment (surgical resection, radiofrequency ablation [RFA], or percutaneousethanol injection [PEI])
- Child–Pugh class A,
- Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group performance status score of 0 or 1

Exclusion Criteria:  patients with
- immune deficiency or autoimmune diseases
- previous or current other malignancies
- severe allergic disorder
Pregnant or breast-feeding women and women planning to get pregnant
Intervention:  - 200 mL of the CIK cell agent intravenously over 60 minutes without any premedication followes by observation for at least 30 minutes.
- treatment schedule: 4 treatments at a frequency of once per week, followed by 4 treatments every 2 weeks, then 4 treatments every 4 weeks and finally 4 treatments every 8 weeks (=16 treatments in total)

Comparison:  no therapy
Primary:  Recurrence Free Survival(RFS), measured from the date of randomization to the first recurrence or to death from any cause

Secondary:  1. Overall survival, measured from the date of randomization until death from any cause
2. Cancer-specific survival, measured from the date of randomization until death resulting from HCC

Results:  primary outcome
median RFS in immunotherapy group 44.0 months vs. 30.0 months in control group. (P= 0.010 by 1-sided log-rank test).
secondary outcome
In the immunotherapy group, patients died of recurrent HCC (2 patients) or new primary gastric cancer (1 patient). In the control group, patients died of recurrent HCC (9 patients) or unknown causes (3 patients). Both the median overall and cancer-specific survivals in both groups were not reached. OS was longer in the immunotherapy group than in the control group (HR, 0.21;95% CI, 0.06–0.75;P=0.008). In addition, cancer-specific survival was longer in the immunotherapy group (HR, 0.19;95% CI, 0.04–0.87;P=0.02)

Author's Conclusion:  In conclusion, this study showed that adjuvant CIK cell immunotherapy prolongs RFS and OS in patients who have undergone curative treatment for HCC. The immunotherapy was associated with a higher frequency of AEs, which were mainly mild to moderate.
Methodical Notes

Funding Sources:  Supported by the Italian Association for Cancer Research.
The Italian National Health Service supported the cost of treatment in the interferon group as a part of a clinical strategy preventing complications of chronic hepatitis C.

COI:  No sponsorship or funding sources for treating patients with interferon-alpha were solicited.
Dr. Bonino advises for Roche.

Randomization:  Sequence generation, stratum assignment, and randomization were computer-driven and centralized at the National Cancer Institute of Milan (also accounting for two thirds of the operations) in a protected database that did not disclose individual or center-specific information.
Patient allocation was performed via telephone from the coordinating office after confirmation of eligibility criteria.
Participants were stratified according to HBV status before randomization.

Blinding:  The RCT was not double-blind; participants knew the group assignment during follow-up. No specification regarding blinding of outcome measurements

Dropout Rate/ITT-Analysis:  The entire series of 150 patients was analyzed after 45 months of median follow-up. Only 1 patient randomized to IFN-alpha treatment was lost to follow-up and censored at 1 month after randomization.

Notes:  
Evidence level 2: RCT
Mazzaferro, V. et al. Prevention of hepatocellular carcinoma recurrence with alpha-interferon after liver resection in HCV cirrhosis. Hepatology. 44. 1543-54. 2006
Population Intervention - Comparison Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  2

Study type:  RCT, multi-center (Italy)

Number of Patient:  190 consecutive HCV RNA–positive/hepatitis B surface antigen–negative Caucasian patients with HCC undergoing liver resection in four surgical centers; 161 met the predeter-mined selection criteria and 150 were eventually randomized within 6 weeks of surgery.

Recruitung Phase:  From June 1998 to November 2002

Inclusion Criteria:  - HCV-RNA positive / HBsAg-negative patients with HCC undergoing potentially curative resection
- Curative surgery (i.e. no residual tumor intraoperative US and tumor-free margins at pathology)
- No recurrence 1 month after surgery (CT, NMR, US)
- Pre-resection treatments allowed (TACE, RFA, PEI)
- HCV-RNA positive (lower limit of detection: 100 copies/ml) regardless of blood titers or genotype


Exclusion Criteria:  - HBsAg-positivity
- Evidence of any active neoplastic site
- Previous IFN or chemotherapy or treatment of other tumors
- Severe surgical complication and/or causes of cirrhosis not related to HCV
- Patient comorbidity (Hb <12 g="" dl="" hiv="" infection="" autoimmune="" disease="" psychiatric="" disorder="" seizure="" severe="" cardiovascular="" disease="" poorly="" controlled="" diabetes="" bmi="">35)
- Active alcohol intake (>80 g/day)
Intervention:  - IFN-alpha (within 6 weeks of surgery) was given subcutaneously 3 million units 3 times every week for 48 weeks
- Patients received outpatient evaluations at 1, 2, 4, 6, 8,and 12 weeks, then every 3 to 4 weeks for up to 6 months,then every 2 months thereafter, unless symptoms of toxicity, adverse events, or other complications occurred

Comparison:  no treatment
Primary:  Recurrence Free Survival

Secondary:  - Disease Specific Survival
- Overall Patient Survival

Results:  recurrence free survival
- IFN: 24.3% (5 years)
- control: 5.8% (5 years) (P=0.499)
disease specific survival
IFN: 63.6% (5 years)
- control: 52.4% (5 years) (P=0.471)
overall surival
- no significant difference (data not shown)
viral status stratification
- late recurrence (2-5 years): in HCV-pure patients risk of HCC recurrence stabilized at 36.4% in the treated arm after 3 years, while it approached 100% in controls (P=0.032)
- no differences were observed in the mixed HCV+HBV subpopulation
per-protocol-analysis
Out of 76 IFN patients, only 28 were adherent to protocol (15 were HCV-pure and 13 were HCV+HBV): these were included in a per-protocol-analysis:
- The hazard ratio estimate of 0.30 (95% CI: 0.094-0.989;P=.048) identified a 70% reduction of HCC recurrence rate in the subgroup of HCV-pure patients


Author's Conclusion:  In conclusion, the results of this RCT suggest that interferon is not recommended as a single chemopreventive agent after resection in patients with HCV-related HCC. However, IFN could be indicated in the subgroup of patients with HCV-pure infection in whom late recurrences can be significantly reduced.
Methodical Notes

Funding Sources:  This work was supported financially by a research grant from the Hong Kong Research Grant Council.

COI:  The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Randomization:  Randomization (1:1 ratio) was performed using sealed consecutively numbered envelopes. The envelopes were kept by a research assistant not involved in the treatment of the patient.

Blinding:  Double-blinding was not used because of the nature of the interventions.

Dropout Rate/ITT-Analysis:  All analyses were performed on an intention-to-treat basis.
Hospital deaths were included in the overall survival analysis, but were excluded from the disease-free survival analysis.


Notes:  
Evidence level 2: RCT

No statistical analyses shown for baseline characteristics.
Ng, K. K. C. et al. Randomized clinical trial of hepatic resection versus radiofrequency ablation for early-stage hepatocellular carcinoma. Br J Surg. 104. 1775-1784. 2017
Population Intervention - Comparison Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  2

Study type:  RCT, single-center (China)

Number of Patient:  218 patients were randomized into the hepatic resection group (109 patients) and RFA group (109)

Recruitung Phase:  July 2002 to June 2007

Inclusion Criteria:  - HCC with a maximum diameter no larger than 5 cm
- 3 or fewer tumour nodules
- absence of extrahepatic metastases
- absence of radiological evidence of tumour invasion of major portal or hepatic vein branches
- Child–Pugh grade A or B liver function, with no history of hepatic encephalopathy, refractory ascites or variceal bleeding;
- general condition fit for either hepatic resection or RFA

Exclusion Criteria:  - tumour location unfavourable for RFA (close to hilar structures)
- previous treatment for HCC (transarterial chemoembolization (TACE), percutaneous ethanol injection or chemotherapy)
- presence of extrahepatic metastases or evidence of tumour invasion into major portal or hepatic vein branches
Intervention:  Radiofrequency ablation

Comparison:  Hepatic resection
Primary:  Overall tumour recurrence (local recurrence or intrahepatic or extrahepatic recurrence)

Secondary:  overall and disease-free survival rates

Results:  tumour recurrence
77 patients (71.3%) in the resection group and 89 (81.7%) in the RFA group developed tumour recurrence. P=0.092
The 1-, 3-, 5- and 10-year overall survival rates
- resection group: 94.5%, 80.6%, 66.5% and 47.6%
- RFA-group: 95.4%, 82.3%, 66.4% and 41.8%
Median overall survival
- resection group: 118.8 months
- RFA-group: 93.5 months
There was no significant difference in overall survival rate between the two groups (P=0.531)
The 1-, 3-, 5- and 10-year disease-free survival rates
- resection group: 74.1%, 50.9%, 41.5% and 31.9%
- RFA group: 70.6%, 46.6%, 33.6% and 18.6%
Median disease-free survival
- resection group: was 39.5 months
- RFA group: 23.7 months.
There was no significant difference between the two groups (P=0⋅072)
short-term outcomes
The RFA group had a shorter treatment duration, less blood loss and shorter hospital stay than the resection group.


Author's Conclusion:  This RCT has shown that RFA is not superior to hepatic resection for treatment of early-stage HCC, in terms of tumour recurrence, or 10-year overall and disease-free survival.
Methodical Notes

Funding Sources:  This work was supported in part by a grant-in-aid for Cancer Research and a grant-in-aid for the Comprehensive 10-year Strategy of Cancer Control from the Ministry of Health and Welfare, Japan.

COI:  not addressed

Randomization:  Randomisation was done by permuted block without stratification

Blinding:  - clinicians and patients were blinded to the study groups
- The first detected recurrence was documented by two independent radiologists unaware of the study group

Dropout Rate/ITT-Analysis:  No patients were lost to follow-up

Notes:  
Evidence level 2: RCT
Takayama, T. et al. Adoptive immunotherapy to lower postsurgical recurrence rates of hepatocellular carcinoma: a randomised trial. Lancet. 356. 802-7. 2000
Population Intervention - Comparison Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  2

Study type:  RCT, single-center (Japan)

Number of Patient:  216 patients underwent hepatectomy of which 155 were deemed eligible and randomised to either of the 2 study groups

Recruitung Phase:  From May, 1992, to September, 1995

Inclusion Criteria:  - histologically confirmed HCC
- UICC tumour-node-metastasis clinical grouping of stage I, II, IIIA, or IVA
- hepatic function of Child-Pugh class A or B
- had undergone curative hepatic resection
- hadnadequate bone-marrow and renal reserve (white cell count >3*10^9/L, platelets >5*10^10/L, and creatinine <88.4 mol="" l="" br=""> - aged between 18 and 80 years

Exclusion Criteria:  - clinically confirmed extrahepatic metastasis (stage IIIB or IVB)
- previous or simultaneous other malignant disorders
- previous cancer treatment
- postoperative dysfunction of any organ
Intervention:  Patients received autologous lymphocytes intravenously at weeks 2, 3, 4, 12 and 24 after surgery (the last two or three infusions as outpatients). This schedule was designed to transfer sufficient cells (>3*10^10) to produce a tumour response, as confirmed in phase 2 studies.

Comparison:  no therapy
Primary:  1. time to first recurrence
2. recurrence-free survival

Secondary:  3. disease-specific survival
4. overall survival


Results:  1. HCC recurred in 45 (59%) immunotherapy patients compared with 57 (77%) controls. The time to first recurrence in the immunotherapy group was significantly longer than that in the control group (p=0.008). The median time to first recurrence was 1.6 years (range 0.2–6.7) for the control group and 2.8 years (0.2–6.6) for the immunotherapy group.
2. Recurrence-free survival was also significantly higher in the immunotherapy group than in the control group (28 [37%] vs 16 [22%] patients; p=0.01).
3. Disease-specific survival was significantly higher in the immunotherapy group than in the control group (p=0·04).
4. The difference in overall survival was not significant (p=0·09); the estimated rates for years 3 and 5 were 88% (95% CI 81–95) compared with 74% (64–85) and 68% (53–83) compared with 62% (47–77)

Author's Conclusion:  Adoptive immunotherapy can be recommended as a new adjuvant in patients with HCC. Treatment refinements, such as defining the best schedule, finding the optimum use of known immunomodulators and developing more potent effectors, could improve clinical benefits.
Methodical Notes

Funding Sources:  This study was supported by State Key Infection Disease Project of China (Project Number: 2012ZX10002010, 2012ZX10002016), Science Fund for Creative Research Groups of China (Project Number 81201940), Youth Fund of Health Bureau of Shanghai (Project Number 201144172) and Natural Science Fund of Shanghai (Project Number 13ZR1450800).

COI:  The authors who have taken part in this study declared that they do not have anything to disclose regarding funding or conflict of interest with respect to this manuscript.

Randomization:  included patients (1:1 ratio) were randomly assigned to either the PH group or the TACE group using random numbers generated from a computer by a research nurse who was not involved in this study.

Blinding:  The double-blind technique was not used

Dropout Rate/ITT-Analysis:  Of 180 patients who were randomized to the PH group and the TACE group, 2 patients in the PH group and 5 patients in the TACE group were excluded from this study after randomization because of violation of study protocol or because of allergy to iohexol. The remaining 173 patients, including 88 patients in the PH group and 85 patients in the TACE group were included for the intention-to-treat analysis.
5 patients in the PH group and 2 in the TACE group were lost to follow-up.

Notes:  
Evidence level 2: RCT
Yin, L. et al. Partial hepatectomy vs. transcatheter arterial chemoembolization for resectable multiple hepatocellular carcinoma beyond Milan Criteria: a RCT. J Hepatol. 61. 82-8. 2014
Population Intervention - Comparison Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  2

Study type:  RCT, single-center (China)

Number of Patient:  180 patients met the inclusion criteria and were randomized to the two groups.

Recruitung Phase:  November 2008 to September 2010

Inclusion Criteria:  (1) good surgical risk patients >18 years and ≤70 years of age;
(2) at least two rounds of radiological imaging showing characteristic features of HCC, or one radiological imaging associated with alpha fetoprotein (AFP) >400µlg/L, or cytological/histological evidence of HCC
(3) resectable HCC with tumors outside of Milan Criteria
(4) adequate liver remnant size after liver resection
(5) no radiological evidence of vascular invasion or extrahepatic metastasis
(6) tumors resectable with a single or multiple liver resections
(7) liver function status of Child-Pugh A-B, with serum bilirubin ≤1.5 times the upper limit of normal, alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase ≤2 times the upper limit of normal
(8) no major organ dysfunction
(9) hemoglobin ≥90 g/L, white bloodcell ≥3000 cells/mm3, platelets ≥80.000 cells/mm3;
(10) informed consent had been obtained.

Exclusion Criteria:  (1) cardiac, pulmonary, cerebral and renal dysfunction
(2) a history of other malignancy
(3) extrahepatic metastasis, portal vein or other major vascular involvement
(4) liver functional status of Child-Pugh C
(5) any other contraindication like: active gastrointestinal bleeding, refractory ascites, coagulopathy,severe portal hypertension
(6) no prior TACE or liver resection.
Intervention:  Partial hepatectomy (PH) included single or multiple liver resections aiming to remove all macroscopic tumors.

Comparison:  transcatheter arterial chemoembolization (TACE)
Primary:  overall survival (OS)

Secondary:  prognostic risk factors associated with OS

Results:  1-, 2-, and 3-year OS rates
- PH-group: 76.1%,63.5%,51.5%; median survival 41 months (range 1–50 months)
- TACE-group: 51.8%, 34.8%, 18.1%; median survival 14 months (range 5–47 months)
The PH group had significantly better OS than the TACE group (log-rank test,chi2= 24.246,p<0.001)
prognostic risk factors
- type of treatment, serum AFP level, total tumor size, gender and number of tumor (univariate analysis)
- type of treatment (hazard ratio, 0.434; 95% CI, 0.293 to 0.644, p<0.001), number of tumor (hazard ratio, 1.758; 95% CI, 1.213 to 2.548, p= 0.003) and gender (hazard ratio, 0.451; 95% CI,0.236 to 0.862, p=0.016) (multivariate analysis)

Author's Conclusion:  In conclusion, the outcome of PH as an initial treatment for patients with tumor outside of Milan Criteria was superior to conventional TACE. The number of tumor and gender were also found to be independent risk factors associated with OS for these patients. To achieve good results of PH, patients should be carefully selected to minimize postoperative mortality and major morbidity.
Methodical Notes

OXFORD (2011) Appraisal Sheet: Prognostic Studies: 1 Bewertung(en)
Funding Sources:  Specific funding was not used to perform this study.

COI:  All authors deny any conflicts of interests.

Randomization:  none

Blinding:  none

Dropout Rate/ITT-Analysis:  none

Notes:  Evidence level 3: retrospective non-randomized follow-up study
Torzilli, G. et al. A snapshot of the effective indications and results of surgery for hepatocellular carcinoma in tertiary referral centers: is it adherent to the EASL/AASLD recommendations?: an observational study of the HCC East-West study group. Ann Surg. 257. 929-37. 2013
Population Intervention Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  3

Study type:  multicentric, retrospective observational study (Asia, America, Europe)

Number of Patient:  2046 patients were studied:
- 746 (36%) from the 3 Asian centers
- 307 (15%) from the 3 American centers
- 993 (49%) from the 4 European centers.
BCLC stage:
- 1012(50%) BCLC 0-A
- 737 (36%) BCLC B
- 297 (14%) BCLC C

Recruitung Phase:  none

Inclusion Criteria:  patients resected for HCC: The centers of the network were asked to enter their data, consecutively and without restrictions, for BCLC stages.

Exclusion Criteria:  none
Intervention:  hepatic resection

Comparison:  none
Primary:  overall survival of patients resected for HCC in any BCLC stage

Secondary:  - disease-free survival of patients resected for HCC among the BCLC stages
- postoperative outcome (morbidity and mortality)
- prognostic factors for overall survival

Results:  1, 3, and 5 years overall survival
- BCLC 0-A: 95%, 80%, and 61%
- BCLC B: 88%, 71% and 57%
- BCLC C: 76%, 49%,and 38%
significant differences P=0.000
1, 3, and 5 years disease-free survival
- BCLC 0-A: 77%, 41%, and 21%
- BCLC B: 63%, 38%, and 27%
- BCLC C: 46%, 28%, and 18%
significant differences P=0.000
30- and 90-day mortality rate
- BCLC 0-A: 1.6% and 2%
- BCLC B: 3.1% and 3%
- BCLC C: 2.5% and 3%
3 day mortality P=0.121; 90-day mortality (P=0.163)
minor morbidity (grade I-II)
- 21%, 17%, and 29% for BCLC 0-A, B, and C patients,respectively (P=0.001)
major morbidity (grade III-IV)
- no significant differences in major morbidity among the 3 BCLC stages (P=0.606)
prognostic factors
- number of tumors more than 3, tumor size more than 5 cm, presence of macrovascular invasion, presence of cirrhosis, presence of esophageal varices, major resection, BCLC classification, and preoperative bilirubin values statistically correlated to overall survival (univariate analysis)
- tumor size more than 5 cm, macrovascular invasion, cirrhosis, esophageal varices, and preoperative total serum bilirubin statistically and independently significant for overall survival (multivariate analysis)

Author's Conclusion:  This large multicentric survey shows that surgery is in current practice widely applied among patients with multinodular, large, and macrovascular invasive HCC, providing acceptable short- and long-term results and justifying an update of the EASL/AASLD therapeutic guidelines in this sense.
Methodical Notes

NEWCASTLE - OTTAWA Checklist: Cohort: 3 Bewertung(en)
Eguchi, S. et al. Comparison of the outcomes between an anatomical subsegmentectomy and a non-anatomical minor hepatectomy for single hepatocellular carcinomas based on a Japanese nationwide survey. Surgery. 143. 469-75. 2008
Evidence level Methodical Notes Patient characteristics Interventions
Evidence level:  3

Study type:  nationwide follow-up survey study (Japan)
Funding sources:  no statement

Conflict of Interests:  no statement

Randomization:  none

Blinding:  none

Dropout rates:  This study is an "As treated" analysis and not an "Intention to treat" analysis.
Total no. patients:  5781 patients with a single HCC who had undergone either an AS (n =2267) or an MH (n =3514) were enrolled.

Recruiting Phase:  between 1994 and 2001

Inclusion criteria:  patients with a single HCC who had undergone AS or MH

Exclusion criteria:  none
Interventions:  anatomical subsegmentectomy (AS)


Comparison:  non-anatomical minor hepatectomy (MH)
Notes: Evidence level 3: non-randomized followup-study

Author's conclusion:  In conclusion, an AS resulted in a better DFS for selected patients with a single HCC. Therefore, an AS is recommended, especially when the size of the HCC ranges from 2 to 5 cm in diameter. However,an MH is also considered to be an alternative treatment option for single HCC, if an AS cannot be performed safely.
Outcome Measures/results Primary  patient survival

Secondary  disease-free survival
Results:  5- and 10-year patient survival
- AS: 65.5% and 34.1%
- MH: 62.4% and 28.5%
hazard ratio 1.120,P= 0.0531
5- and 10-year disease-free survival
- AS: 39.8% and 9.4%
- MH: 34.4% and 10%
hazard ratio 1.121,P= .0089
subgroup analysis
- DFS for HCC between 2cm-5cm: AS: 37.4% (5-year) and 7.8% (10-year); MH: 30.1% (5-year) and 4.6% (10-year); P=0.0005
- no significant difference betweeen AS and MH for HCC≤ 2cm and HCC≥ 5cm
- no significant difference betweeen AS and MH when data were stratified according to liver damage status

Roayaie, S. et al. The role of hepatic resection in the treatment of hepatocellular cancer. Hepatology. 62. 440-51. 2015
Evidence level Methodical Notes Patient characteristics Interventions
Evidence level:  3

Study type:  multiregional, longitudinal cohort study (Asia-Pacific, Europe, North America)
Funding sources:  The BRIDGE database and data collection were funded by Bristol-Meyers Squibb. Centers were provided with funds for entry of data. The analysis of the data reported here and the preparation of the manuscript were not funded by any source or company.

Conflict of Interests:  no statement

Randomization:  none

Blinding:  none

Dropout rates:  none
Total no. patients:  8656 patients included

Recruiting Phase:  January 1, 2005, and June 30, 2011

Inclusion criteria:   newly diagnosed HCC recieving treatment (transplantation, resection, ablation, embolization, other)

Exclusion criteria:  no statement
Interventions:  A) ideal candidates resected


Comparison:  B) ideal candidates not resected
C) non-ideal candidates resected
D) non-ideal candidates not resected
Notes: Evidence level 3: cohort study

Author's conclusion:  Our study suggests that the current AASLD/EASL criteria might be expanded to include patients with either moderate portal hypertension or slightly elevated total bilirubin>1 mg/dL, but not both, without any appreciable increase in mortality. Finally, for patients who do not meet AASLD/EASL criteria for surgery, resection may still be associated with longer survival, when compared to embolization and “other” treatments and shorter survival in comparison to ablation and transplantation, when controlling for other relevant factors.
Outcome Measures/results Primary  survival

Secondary  
Results:  3- and 5-year survival rates
- group A: 74% and 65%; median survival not reached
- group B: 55% and 55%; median survival not reached
- group C: 47% and 35%; median survival 32.4 months
- Multivariate analysis of groups A&B revealed a nearly 2-fold increase in risk of mortality treatments other than resection
- Expansion of AASLD/EASL criteria to include more-severe liver dysfunction, advanced tumor characteristics or compromised performance status was associated with a significant detrimental effect on survival
- portal hypertension was not associated with a decrease in survival
- total bilirubin over 1 mg/dL did not have an appreciable impact on survival;
- patients who didn't met criteria as ideal candidates (group C+D) for resection, surgery was associated with lower mortality, when compared to embolization and “other” treatments when controlling for variables that significantly impact survival of HCC patients; surgery fared worse than ablation and transplantation.

Wong, J. S. et al. Liver stiffness measurement by transient elastography as a predictor on posthepatectomy outcomes. Ann Surg. 257. 922-8. 2013
Evidence level Methodical Notes Patient characteristics Interventions
Evidence level:  3

Study type:  prospective cohort study, single center (China)
Funding sources:  no statement

Conflict of Interests:  G.L.H.W. has served as a speaker for Echosens.
V.W.S.W. has served as a speaker for Roche and Bristol-Myers Squibb.
H.L.Y.C. has served as a consultant and advisory board member for Bristol-Myers Squibb, F. Hoffmann La Roche, Novartis Pharmaceutical, Gilead, Merck, and Abbott Diagnostic.
The remaining authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Randomization:  none

Blinding:  none

Dropout rates:  none
Total no. patients:  105 consecutive patients who underwent hepatectomies were included for analysis

Recruiting Phase:  February 2010 to July 2011

Inclusion criteria:  consecutive patients who underwent hepatectomy for various indications and had a detailed preoperative assessment including LSM and indocyanine green (ICG) clearance test.

Exclusion criteria:  Major hepatectomy could not be offered to patients with ICG R15 of more than 14%
Interventions:  liver stiffness measurement before hepatectomy


Comparison:  indocyanine green (ICG) clearance test before hepatectomy
Notes: Evidence level 3: cohort study

Author's conclusion:  n conclusions, high preoperative LSM could predict posthepatectomy complication and operative blood loss. Liver stiffness measurement had a high diagnostic accuracy for advanced liver fibrosis and cirrhosis. It was better than ICG R15, radiological, or intra-operative assessment of cirrhosis in the prediction of postoperative outcomes. It may also serve as a noninvasive and convenient tool for risk stratification or risk disclosure to patients before hepatectomy.
Outcome Measures/results Primary  major postoperative complication

Secondary  overall complication, operative blood loss, transfusion rate, and histological fibrosis score
Results:  
major postoperative complication
- AUROC curve LSM: 0.79(95% confidence interval, 0.65–0.93;P<0.001)
- AUROC curve ICG R15: 0.51 (95% confidence interval, 0.38–0.72;P=0.90).
- The calculated cut off value for LSM was 12.0kPa, with sensitivity of 85.7%, specificity of 71.8%, positive predictive value of 33.3%, and negative predictive value of 95.7%
correlation of LSM with postoperative complications
Major Complication Rate,n(%)
LSM value >12.0kPa= 12 (33.3) vs. LSM value ≤12.0kPa= 3 (4.3); P<0.001
Overall Complication Rate,n(%)
LSM value >12.0kPa= 14 (38.4) vs. LSM value ≤12.0kPa= 8 (11.6); P=0.001
Blood Loss Per Transection Area, mL/cm
LSM value >12.0kPa= 10.0 (2.1–40.8) vs. LSM value ≤12.0kPa= 6.3 (1.1–69.3); P=0.03
Transfusion rate n(%)
LSM value >12.0kPa= 8 (22.2) vs. LSM value ≤12.0kPa= 3 (4.4); P=0.008
correlation of LSM with histological fibrosis staging
- AUROC curve for LSM in relation to advanced liver fibrosis: 0.89 (95% confidence interval, 0.80–0.95;P<0.001)
- diagnostic accuracy for the prediction of advanced liver fibrosis and cirrhosis was 83.8%

HCC Di Costanzo 2015 RFA
Notes:  
Oxford CEBM Level 2- randomized clinical trial
Di Costanzo, G. G. et al. Radiofrequency ablation versus laser ablation for the treatment of small hepatocellular carcinoma in cirrhosis: a randomized trial. J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 30. 559-65. 2015
Population Intervention - Comparison Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  2

Study type:  Randomized clinical trial.

Number of Patient:  432 naïve HCCs in patients with cirrhosis were consecutively observed.
Among these, 140 patients met the entry criteria, Eighteen of these 140 (13%) patients were considered resectable
but refused surgery.
RFA (70 patients with 77 nodules)
or LA (70 patients with 80 nodules)

Recruitung Phase:  January 2009 to September 2012

Inclusion Criteria:   (i) unresectable HCC (due to nodule location, multifocality, presence of portal hypertension, age > 75 years, or comorbidity) or refusal of surgery;
(ii) solitary HCC ≤ 5.0 cm, or ≤ 3 lesions each ≤ 3.0 cm in diameter;
(iii) Child–Pugh class A or B;
(iv) a platelet count > 40 000/μL and INR < 2.0; and
(v) no previous HCC treatment.

Exclusion Criteria:  (i) history of encephalopathy or refractory ascites;
(ii) vascular invasion or extrahepatic metastasis; and
(iii) unfeasible percutaneous thermal ablation (inconspicuous nodules and tumors located within 5 mm of liver hilum or the main bile duct branches).
Intervention:  RFA
Four weeks after ablation, the treatment response was assessed by dynamic contrast-enhanced computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). In case of residual enhancing tumor tissue an additional session of ablation was given. The design of the study was scheduled up to three ablation procedures during a 6-month period.

Comparison:  LA
Primary:  Complete tumor ablation (CTA): defined as absence of any contrast enhancement within or at the periphery of the HCC nodule.

Secondary:  Time to local progression (TTLP) and overall survival (OS); TTLP was defined as the time
from CTA to reappearance of arterial enhancement on CT or MRI either within a treated tumor or near its borders. The OS was defined as the interval between the first treatment and either death or last follow-up visit before November 30, 2013.

Results:  Treatment response_CFA:
RFA group: patients: 97.1% (95% CI, 90.2–99.2) nodules: 97.4% (91.0–99.3)
LA group, patients: 95.7% (95% CI, 88.1–98.5) nodules: 96.3% (89.6–98.7)
Therefore, the rate of CTA was comparable between the two techniques with a difference per patient of 1.4% (95% CI from −6.0% to + 9.0%) and per nodule of 1.1% (from −5.7% to + 8.1%) (P = .5).

HCC recurrence and survival:
Local tumor progression occurred in 25.7% of RFA patients and in 22.9% of LA patients.
The mean TTLP was comparable between RFA (42.0 months; 95% CI, 36.83–47.3) and LA groups (46.7 months; 95% CI, 41.5–51.9) (P = .591).
The mean local progression-free survival was 35.7 (95% CI, 30.6–40.9) months and 35.5 (30.1–40.8) months in RFA and LA groups, respectively.

During the study period, 18 patients in the RFA group and 24 patients in the LA group had died.
The mean OS was 42 months in both groups, the 1- and 3-year survival probability was 94% and 89% in RFA group, and 94% and 80% in LA group.

Complications:
There were no treatment-related deaths.
moderate pain (SIR class A) was recorded in 36% and 33% of RFA and LA patients, respectively.
Self-limiting fever lasting < 15 days (SIR class A) occurred in 32% and 35% of RFA and LA patients, respectively.
One case per group of subcutaneous tumor seeding was observed (SIR class C).

Author's Conclusion:  In conclusion, this is the first study that validates the use of LA for the treatment of HCC. LA resulted not inferior to RFA in achieving the CTA and therefore it should be considered as an evaluable alternative for thermal ablation of small HCC in cirrhotic patients.
Methodical Notes

HCC TACE + Ablation

Schlüsselfrage:

HCC 16 TACE Ablation
Soll vor Ablation (Radiofrequenz- oder Thermoablation) eines HCC-Herdes bis 5cm eine (Chemo-)Embolisation durchgeführt werden?

Inhalt: 2 Literaturstellen
Literaturstelle Evidenzlevel Studientyp
Jianyong, L. 2017 3 non-randomized controlled trial
Majumdar, A. 2017 1 Cochrane Review of randomized clinical trials.


OXFORD (2011) Appraisal Sheet: Systematic Reviews: 1 Bewertung(en)
Majumdar, A. et al. Management of people with early? or very early?stage hepatocellular carcinoma. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. . . 2017
Evidence level/Study Types P - I - C Outcomes/Results Literature References
Evidence level:  1

Study type:  Cochrane Review of randomized clinical trials.
Databases:   Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL) in the Cochrane Library, MEDLINE (OvidSP),
Embase (OvidSP), and Science Citation Index Expanded (Web of Knowledge). World Health Organization International Clinical Trials Registry Platform search portal (apps.who.int/trialsearch/), which searches various trial registers, including ISRCTN (www.isrctn.com/) and ClinicalTrials.gov ( clinicaltrials.gov/).

Search period:  From inception to 30 September 2016.

Inclusion Criteria:  Randomised clinical trials irrespective of language, publication status, or date of publication.

Exclusion Criteria:  Studies of other design because of the risk of bias in such studies. We excluded randomised clinical trials in which participants were previously liver transplanted. In addition, we planned to exclude trials in which liver resection or liver transplantation was combined with ablation, TAE, or TACE.
Population:  Patients with early or very early hepatocellular carcinoma irrespective of the presence of cirrhosis, size of tumour(s), and number of tumours (provided that they met the criteria of early or very early hepatocellular carcinoma (i.e. BCLC stages 0 and A)), presence or absence of portal hypertension, aetiology of hepatocellular carcinoma, and the future remnant liver volume.

Intervention:  Some of the interventions that we considered were:
• liver resection;
• liver transplantation;
• radiofrequency ablation;
• microwave ablation;
• other ablations (laser ablation, cryoablation, high-intensity focused ultrasound, irreversible electroporation);
• alcohol injection;
• acetic acid injection;
• TAE;
• TACE.

Comparison:  either alone or in combination tested versus each other or versus sham or no intervention.
Primary:  1. Mortality at maximal follow-up (time to death):
i) all-cause mortality;
ii) cancer-related mortality.
2. Mortality:
i) short-term mortality (up to one year);
ii) medium-term mortality (one to five years).
3. Adverse events (within three months of cessation of treatment).
4. Quality of life as defined in the included trials using a validated scale such as EQ-5D or 36-Item Short Form Health Survey (SF-36).

Secondary:  1. Disease recurrence (maximum follow-up):
i) proportion of participants with hepatocellular carcinoma recurrence (includes recurrence in the liver and metastatic disease);
ii) proportion of participants with local recurrence (recurrence in the liver).
2. Length of hospital stay for the treatment and treatment related complications.

Results:  Surgery versus radiofrequency ablation: not part of this evidence table.

Non-surgical interventions:

by Outcome:
Quality of life: None of the trials reported health related quality of life.
Adverse events: There was no evidence of a difference in any of the comparisons that reported serious adverse events (number of participants or number of events).

Transarterial embolisation plus radiofrequency ablation versus radiofrequency ablation

Mortality at maximal follow-up (one trial, 44 participants): HR 1.12 (0.48 to 2.58)
Cancer-related mortality at maximal follow-up: None of the trials reported this outcome
Serious adverse events (number of participants)(2 trials, 84 participants): OR 2.11 (0.18 to 25.35) (Follow-up: 6 months in 1 trial and not stated in another trial).

Further interventions (some evidence of difference):
- Mortality at maximal follow-up was higher in the percutaneous acetic acid injection group (HR 1.77, 95% CI 1.12 to 2.79; 125 participants; 1 trial) and the percutaneous alcohol injection group (HR 1.49, 95% CI 1.18 to 1.88; 882 participants; 5 trials; I2 = 57%) than in the radiofrequency ablation group.
• Cancer-related mortality at maximal follow-up was higher in the percutaneous alcohol injection group than in the radiofrequency ablation group (OR 2.18, 95% CI 1.22 to 3.89; 458 participants; 3 trials; I2 = 0%).
• Mortality (> 1 year) was higher in the percutaneous alcohol injection group than in the radiofrequency ablation group (OR 1.69, 95% CI 1.15 to 2.49; 598 participants; 4 trials; I2 = 0%).
• Number of any adverse events was lower in the TACE plus percutaneous alcohol injection group than the percutaneous alcohol injection group (RR 0.53, 95% CI 0.42 to 0.67; 52 participants; 1 trial).
- The proportion of people with hepatocellular carcinoma recurrence (local or distal) was higher in the percutaneous alcohol injection group than in the radiofrequency ablation group (OR 1.58, 95% CI 1.02 to 2.45; 371 participants; 2 trials; I2 = 0%).
• Length of hospital stay was longer in the percutaneous alcohol injection group than in the radiofrequency ablation group (MD 15.30 days, 95% CI 13.23 to 17.37; 232 participants; 1 trial).


Author's Conclusion:  The evidence was of low or very low quality. There was no evidence of a difference in all-cause mortality at maximal follow-up between surgery and radiofrequency ablation in people eligible for surgery. All-cause mortality at maximal follow-up was higher with percutaneous acetic acid injection and percutaneous alcohol injection than with radiofrequency ablation in people not eligible for surgery. There was no evidence of a difference in all-cause mortality at maximal follow-up for the other comparisons. High-quality RCTs designed to assess clinically important differences in all-cause mortality and health-related quality of life, and having an adequate follow-up period (approximately five years) are needed.
TACE plus radiofrequency ablation vs. Radiofrequency ablation:
Aikata 2016 Hepatology.
El Kady 2013, Hepatology,
others: see publication.
Methodical Notes
Funding Sources:  Participants not eligible for surgery: Five trials did not receive any special funding or received funding from parties without vested interest in the results. The source of funding was not reported in the remaining trials.
The Danish State is the largest single funder of the Cochrane Hepato-Biliary Group through its investment in The Copenhagen Trial Unit, Centre for Clinical Intervention Research, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen University Hospital, Denmark.

COI:  see puclication

Study Quality:  None of the trials was at low risk of bias for all domains; hence, we considered all trials to be at high risk of bias.

Studies regarding Transarterial embolisation plus radiofrequency ablation versus radiofrequency ablation:
1Downgraded one level because of within-study risk of bias: there was unclear or high risk of bias in the trial(s).
2Downgraded one level because of imprecision: the sample size was small.
3Downgraded one level because of imprecision: the confidence intervals overlapped clinically significant effect and clinically insignificant effect.

Heterogeneity:  assessed. Subgroup analysis if necessary.

Publication Bias:  We did not assess reporting bias by creating a funnel plot because of the few trials included for each comparison.

Notes:  
CEBM Oxford Level of evidence 1 (SR)
Only two studies relevant for PICO question.

OXFORD (2011) Appraisal Sheet: RCT: 1 Bewertung(en)
Funding Sources:  This study was supported by grants from the National major projects researches (No. 2012ZX10002-016) and Sichuan Provience Science and Technology Project of China (No. 2017SZ0139).

COI:  The authors declare no competing financial interests.

Randomization:  no

Blinding:  no

Dropout Rate/ITT-Analysis:  -

Notes:  
CEBM Level of evidence 3 - non-randomized controlled cohort.
Jianyong, L. et al. Preoperative adjuvant transarterial chemoembolization cannot improve the long term outcome of radical therapies for hepatocellular carcinoma. Sci Rep. 7. 41624. 2017
Population Intervention - Comparison Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  3

Study type:  non-randomized controlled trial

Number of Patient:  1560 consecutive patients.

Recruitung Phase:   January 2002 and May 2008,

Inclusion Criteria:  Primary hepatocellular carcinoma, Targets with no previous treatment, Liver cirrhosis classified as Child class A or B, BCLC-HCC stage 0 or A, Accepting RFA, resection or LT.

Exclusion Criteria:  Presence of macro-vascular invasion, Present of extrahepatic target, Severe impairment of another organ, Metastatic hepatic malignancies, Child class C, Gastrointestinal hemorrhage in the past month, Gallbladder carcinoma or extrahepatic primary biliary carcinoma, Intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma, Metastatic liver disease, Rupture of HCC, Loss to follow-up.
Intervention:  - TACE plus RFA group (81 cases),
- TACE plus resection group (268 case),
- TACE plus LT group (78 cases)
and the solitary radical therapy included the RFA group (163 cases), resection group (633 cases), and LT group (337 cases).

Comparison:  see Intervention
Primary:  The overall survival rate (OSR) and tumor-free survival rate (TFSR).

Secondary:  Procedure-related complications.

Results:  RFA vs. TACE+RFA
Overall survival: overall 1-, 3-, and 5-year actual survival rates were comparable (P= 0.958).
Tumor free survival: no significant differences (p= 0.696).

General:
The 1-, 3- and 5-year overall survival rates and tumor-free survival rates were comparable between the solitary radical therapy group and TACE combined group in the whole group and in each of the subgroups (RFA, resection and LT) (P>0.05). In the subgroup analysis, according to BCLC stage A or B, the advantages of adjuvant TACE were also not observed (P>0.05). A Neutrophil-lymphocyte ratio (NLR) more than 4, multiple tumor targets, BCLC stage B, and poor histological grade were significant contributors to the overall and tumor-free survival rates.

Author's Conclusion:  In conclusion, preoperative adjuvant TACE prolonged neither long-term overall survival nor tumor-free survival in patients who accepted RFA, resection or LT. Thus, despite its relatively safety and feasibility, we cannot recommend preoperative adjuvant TACE as a routine procedure before radical therapy in HCC patients. LT should remain the first choice for BCLC-A HCC patients.
Methodical Notes

HCC TACE

Schlüsselfrage:

HCC 16
Profitieren Patienten mit einem auf die Leber beschränkten Tumor von einer TACE?

Inhalt: 6 Literaturstellen
Literaturstelle Evidenzlevel Studientyp
Golfieri, R. 2014 2 RCT, multi-center (Italy)
Lammer, J. 2010 2 RCT (Phase II), multi-center (Europe)
Lo, C. M. 2002 2 RCT, single-center (China)
Malagari, K. 2012 4 prospective nonrandomized, 1-arm interventional trial
Ogasawara, S. 2017 2 RCT, single center (Japan)
Takayasu, K. 2010 3 cohort study, multi-center (Japan)


OXFORD (2011) Appraisal Sheet: RCT: 4 Bewertung(en)
Funding Sources:  no statement

COI:  The authors declare no conflict of interest

Randomization:  Upon enrolment, alphanumeric identification codes were assigned to the patients who were then randomised to one of the two treatments. The randomisation was stratified according to Child-Pugh class and BCLC stage and it was centralised at the Investigational Drug Service of the Pharmacy of the Bologna center, allocating the first and lowest randomisation code available, and generating the randomisation list.

Blinding:  none

Dropout Rate/ITT-Analysis:  drop-out
cTACE-group: 2
DEB-TACE-group: 1
Survival and safety analyses included all randomised patients who underwent at least one TACE (intention-to-treat analysis)

Notes:  
Literatur from submitted hand search.
Evidence level 2: RCT
Golfieri, R. et al. Randomised controlled trial of doxorubicin-eluting beads vs conventional chemoembolisation for hepatocellular carcinoma. Br J Cancer. 111. 255-64. 2014
Population Intervention - Comparison Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  2

Study type:  RCT, multi-center (Italy)

Number of Patient:  177 randomized patients
- 88 in cTACE-group
- 89 in DEB-TACE-group

Recruitung Phase:  March 2008 and December 2010;

Inclusion Criteria:  ≥18 years of age
- HCC unsuitable for curative treatment or had failed/recurred after resection/ablation
- diagnosed by biopsy or according to the AASLD criteria
- Child-Pugh A or B (score 7)
- Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group (ECOG) PS ≤1
- no previous treatment on target lesions (prior treatments on non-target lesions were accepted).

Exclusion Criteria:  - poor liver function (Child-Pugh class B or MELD score ≥10)
- severe comorbidities
- patient refusal for resection
- critical location or non-visibility at ultrasonography of nodules and not permissive clotting/platelet count for ablation.
- infiltrative HCC
- portal vein thrombosis
- ascites
- F3 oesophageal varices
- advanced liver disease (bilirubin levels ≥2.5 mg dl-1, albumin ≤30 g l-1, platelets ≤50x109 per litre, INR ≥1.5)
- other tumours in the previous 5 years
- contraindications to arteriography or TACE.
Intervention:  Transcatheter arterial chemoembolisation with calibrated dox-orubicin-carrying microspheres, DC-Beads

Comparison:  conventional TACE
Primary:  2-year survival

Secondary:  - radiological tumour response (CR: complete response, OR: objective response, DC: disease control)
- time-to-tumour progression (TTP: interval between randomisation and radiological tumour progression)
- impact on ECOG PS and liver function
- number of treatments
- duration of in-hospital stay
- need for other types of treatment of residual/recurrent tumours

Results:  1- and 2-year survival rates
- cTACE: 83.5% and 55.4%
- DEB-TACE: 6.2% and 56.8% (P=0.949)
median number of treatments
- 2 in both the cTACE (range: 1–4) and the DEB-TACE arms (range: 1–5)
radiological tumour response
- No significant differences were found in the rates of local (CR, OR, and DC) and overall tumour responses during the follow-up period (P≥0.05 in all cases), except for a more frequent overall CR at 1 month after cTACE than after DEB-TACE (59.8% vs 43.8%; P=0.036)
TTP
- cTACE: 9 months (95% CI: 6.3–11.7)
- DEB-TACE: 9 months (95% CI: 6.8–11.2) (P=0.766)
median in-hospital stay
- cTACE: 4 days (range: 1–26)
- DEB-TACE: 3 days (range: 1–34)(P=0.323)
adverse events
- post-procedural pain two-fold more frequent and more severe in the cTACE arm (71.6% vs. 24.7%; P=0.001)
need for other types of treatment of residual/recurrent tumours
- In all, 36 (20%) patients received subsequent treatments that were equally distributed in the two arms (P=0.404)


Author's Conclusion:  In conclusion, the present study failed to demonstrate a superiority of DEB-TACE over cTACE in terms of efficacy, safety and more importantly, 2-year survival. The only benefit of DEB-TACE was a lower incidence and intensity of post-procedural abdominal pain. However, since this did not affect the length of in-hospital stay and patient acceptance of additional TACEs, this marginal advantage is offset, in our opinion, by the higher cost of the new technique. Hence, the routine use of DEB-TACE in clinical practice is debatable, unless further studies can identify patient subgroups in which its use is more beneficial for outcome.
Methodical Notes

Funding Sources:  The study was sponsored by Biocompatibles UK Ltd.

COI:  no statement

Randomization:  Randomization was centralized, with stratification factors of Child-Pugh class (A/B), ECOG performance status (0/1), prior curative (resection or percutaneous ablation) treatment (yes/no), and bilobar disease (yes/no), representing more advanced disease. Randomized treatment allocation was predetermined by an independent statistician and used a randomized permuted block design to ensure that, at the conclusion of the study treatment, group sizes were similar both overall and for each level of stratification factor. The randomization was integrated into the web-based Case Report Form after screening.

Blinding:  single-blind; MRI scans were assessed independently by two assessors blinded to treatment allocation (followed by adjudication in case of disagreement)

Dropout Rate/ITT-Analysis:  Modified Intention-to-Treat (MITT) population, defined as all randomized patients who received at least one chemoembolization
- Due to dropouts prior to first treatment, the MITT population included 93 (DC Bead) and 108 patients 8 (cTACE).

Notes:  
Literatur from submitted hand search.
Evidence level 2: RCT
Lammer, J. et al. Prospective randomized study of doxorubicin-eluting-bead embolization in the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma: results of the PRECISION V study. Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol. 33. 41-52. 2010
Population Intervention - Comparison Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  2

Study type:  RCT (Phase II), multi-center (Europe)

Number of Patient:  212 patients were randomized to TACE with DC Bead (n=102) or cTACE (n=110)

Recruitung Phase:  25 November 2005 and 27 June 2007

Inclusion Criteria:  - Patients aged ≥18 years
- with HCC unsuitable for resection or percutaneous ablation, (BCLC A/B, without portal invasion or extrahepatic spread)
- no previous chemotherapy, radiotherapy or transarterial embolization (with or without chemotherapy),
- confirmed diagnosis of HCC according to EASL,
- an Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group (ECOG) performance status of 0 or 1,
- preserved liver function (Child-Pugh Class A or B)

Exclusion Criteria:  - another primary tumor
- advanced liver disease (bilirubin levels ≥3 mg/dl, AST or ALT ≥ 5x upper limit of normal or ≥250 U/l)
- advanced tumoral disease (vascular invasion or extrahepatic spread, or diffuse HCC, defined as ≥50% liver involvement)
- contraindications for doxorubicin administration
Intervention:  doxorubicin via TACE with DC Bead

Comparison:  doxorubicin via cTACE
Primary:  primary efficacy endpoint
- 6-month tumor response rate, according to the amended EASL response criteria
primary safety endpoint
- incidence of treatment-related serious adverse events (SAEs) occurring within 30 days of a treatment procedure

Secondary:  Secondary safety outcomes
- incidence and severity of adverse events (AEs) and SAEs,
- liver function parameters,
- laboratory abnormalities
- cardiac function (ejection fraction)

Results:  efficacy (6-months tumour response)
- complete response 25 (26.9%) DC Bead vs. 24 (22.2%) cTACE
- partial response 23 (24.7%)DC Bead vs. 23 (21.3%) cTACE
- stable disease 11 (11.8%) DC Bead vs. 9 (8.3%) cTACE
- progressive disease 30(32.3%) DC Bead vs. 44 (40.7%) cTACE
- Overall response rate 51.6% DC Bead vs. 43.5% cTACE; the hypothesis of superiority was not met (one-sided P=0.11)
- in patients with more advanced disease (Child Pugh B, ECOG1, bilobar or recurrent disease), Overall response and disease control rates were statistically higher (P=0.038 and P=0.026, respectively) in the DC Bead compared with the cTACE group
safety (incidence of SAEs within first 30 days)
- 19 (20.4%) DC Bead patients experiencing 28 events vs. 21 (19.4%) cTACE patients experiencing 24 events. (P=0.86)
secondary safety outcomes
- overall frequency of treatment-emergent AEs (TE-AEs) per 100 treatments lower in the DC Bead compared with the cTACE group
- majority of TEAEs mild or moderate in intensity, with a lower frequency of severe events (20.4% vs. 30.6%) reported in DC Bead vs. cTACE patients
- Serious liver toxicity postchemoembolization lower in the DC Bead group
- Observed postprocedural increases in liver enzymes AST and ALT significantly less in the DC Bead group than in the cTACE group
- Cardiac function maintained in DC Bead group vs. deterioration in left ventricular ejection fraction in cTACE group

Author's Conclusion:  In conclusion, TACE with DC Bead and doxorubicin is safe and effective in the treatment of intermediate-stage HCC and offers benefit to patients with more advanced disease.
Methodical Notes

Funding Sources:  no statement

COI:  no statement

Randomization:  randomization was performed without stratification by drawing consecutively numbered sealed envelopes.

Blinding:  none

Dropout Rate/ITT-Analysis:  Comparison between groups was made on an intention-to-treat basis. One patient assigned to the control group was excluded secondarily because of unrecognized pulmonary and bone metastases on computed tomography scan taken before randomization.
Two patients, 1 in each group, were lost and could not be contacted after a follow-up of 4 months and 9 months. These were treated as censored observations.

Notes:  
Literatur from submitted hand search.
Evidence level 2: RCT
Lo, C. M. et al. Randomized controlled trial of transarterial lipiodol chemoembolization for unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma. Hepatology. 35. 1164-71. 2002
Population Intervention - Comparison Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  2

Study type:  RCT, single-center (China)

Number of Patient:  80 patients were allocated randomly to the chemoembolization group (40 patients) or the control group (40 patients)

Recruitung Phase:  March 1996 to October 1997

Inclusion Criteria:  diagnoses of unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma that were based on histology, cytology or persistently elevated serum alpha-fetoprotein levels (≥400 ng/mL) with typical imaging findings

Exclusion Criteria:  patients who had
- poor hepatic function (presence of hepatic encephalopathy, ascites not controlled by diuretics, history of variceal bleeding within last three months, a serum total bilirubin level over 50µmol/L, a serum albumin level below 28 g/L, or a pro-thrombin time of more than 4 seconds over the control)
- serum creatinine level of over 180µmol/L
- history of previous treatment for the tumor or acute tumor rupture
- presence of extrahepatic metastasis or vascular contra indications to chemoembolization (hepatic artery thrombosis, main portal vein thrombosis or arteriovenous shunting)
- poor performance status (Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group performance status rating grade 4)
Intervention:  - transarterial Lipiodol chemoembolization after a standard protocol with an emulsion containing cisplatin (1 mg/mL) with Lipiodol in a volume ratio of 1 to 1
- various amounts of the emulsion, up to a maximum of 60 mL (containing 30 mg of cisplatin) were injected slowly under fluoroscopic monitoring according to the size of the tumor and the arterial bloodflow.

Comparison:  only treatment for symptoms and complications
Primary:  survival calculated from the date of randomization

Secondary:  tumor response, patient tolerance and liver function

Results:  1-year, 2-year, and 3-year survival rates
- chemoembolization: 57%, 31%, and 26%
- control: 32%, 11%, and 3%
- patients who received chemoembolization had a relative risk of death of 0.49 (95%CI, 0.29-0.81;P=.006) as compared with those of the control group
tumor response
- chemoenbolization: no complete response, 11 major responses, 6 minor responses, 7 stabilizations and 4 progressions
- control: no complete response, 1 major response, 2 minorresponses, 6 stabilizations and 9 progressions
- rate of objective tumor response in measurable patients significantly higher in the chemoembolization group than in the control group (39% vs. 6%;P=.014)
patient tolerance
- most common clinical adverse effect self-limiting syndrome consisting of fever, abdominal pain and vomiting
liver function
- lower serum bilirubin level in the chemoembolization group at 3 months (P=.038),



Author's Conclusion:  In conclusion, transarterial Lipiodol chemoembolization using the present regimen prolongs the survival of a selected group of Asian patients with unresectable hepa-tocellular carcinoma and is an effective palliative treatment option. Whether non-Asian patients with this disease condition will benefit from a similar regimen or other regimens of chemoembolization remains to be determined by further randomized controlled trials.
Methodical Notes

Funding Sources:  no statement

COI:  Dr. Yokosuka received grants from Dainippon Sumitomo

Randomization:  The allocation was generated by a computer program located in the Clinical Research Center. The allocation coordinators at the Clinical Research Center enrolled patients and assigned them to the trial groups. Allocation factors were TACE history (absent/present), tumor burden (≤50%/>50%), and Child-Pugh classification (A/B).

Blinding:  The study drugs were prepared by nonblinded clinical pharmacists in Chiba University Hospital and distributed to the investigators at the start of trial. The allocation coordinators and the nonblinded clinical pharmacists had no involvement in the rest of the trial. All study investigators and patients were masked to treatment group allocation.

Dropout Rate/ITT-Analysis:  2 different analysis sets:
- 1 patient in dexamethason group did not recieve TACE and was excluded. Therefore, a total of 119 patients were included in intention-to-treat analysis set.
- 3 patients in the dexamethasone regimen and 4 patients in the placebo regimen were excluded for division of protocol due to using cisplatin during TACE, one patient discontinued participation in the study because of intra-abdominal bleeding related to a liver tumor biopsy that was performed before TACE. Therefore, the per-protocol set comprised 56 patients in each of the dexamethasone and placebo regimens.

Notes:  
Literatur from submitted hand search.
Evidence label 2: RCT
Ogasawara, S. et al. A randomized placebo-controlled trial of prophylactic dexamethasone for transcatheter arterial chemoembolization. Hepatology. . . 2017
Population Intervention - Comparison Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  2

Study type:  RCT, single center (Japan)

Number of Patient:  120 patients (dexamethasone n=60; control n=60)

Recruitung Phase:  October 2010 and June 2013

Inclusion Criteria:  - age ≥20years
- presence of histologically confirmed or clinically diagnosed HCC (fulfilling the criteria for lesions with typical imaging)
- absence of benefit from a treatment of established efficacy such as resection and local ablation
- presence of Child-Pugh class A or B disease
- an Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group performance status of 0, 1, or 2
- hemoglobin ≥8.5 g/dL;
- whiteblood cell count ≥2,000/mm3
- neutrophil count ≥1,000/mm3
- total bilirubin level ≤3.0 mg/dL
- aspartate aminotransferase and alanine aminotransferase levels ≤10 times the upper limit of normal
- prothrombin time ≤2.3 (international normalized ratio)
- serumalbumin ≥2.5g/dL
- serum creatinine level ≤1.5 times the upper limit of normal.

Exclusion Criteria:  - history of other malignancies diagnosed in the past 3 years
- uncontrolled or significant cardiovascular disease
- active bacterial infection
- human immunodeficiency virus infection/adult immunodeficiency syndrome
- grade 1 or higher fever, anorexia, and/or nausea/vomiting
- uncontrollable DM with HbA1c ≥8.0 g/dL
- autoimmune hepatitis
- presence of HBV DNA at or above the sensitivity of detection in patients who did not receive nucleos(t)ide analogue treatment
- extrahepatic metastasis and/or microvascular invasion
- use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs or steroids periodically
Intervention:  dexamethasone regimen (day 1, intravenous dexamethasone [20 mg] and granisetron [3 mg] before TACE; days 2 and 3, intravenous dexamethasone [8mg])

Comparison:  control regimen (day 1, intravenous placebo[saline] and granisetron [3 mg]; days 2 and 3, intravenous placebo)
Primary:  overall rate of complete response (CR), defined as no fever,anorexia, or nausea/vomiting and no rescue therapy within 120 hours after TACE.

Secondary:  cumulative incidences of fever, anorexia and nausea/vomiting
- evaluation of the nutritional state determined by the levels of prealbumin and retinol-binding protein
- the response rate of TACE
- the rate of hepatitis B virus (HBV) reactivation
- and safety

Results:  rate of complete response within 120 hours
- dexamethasone: 47.5%, 95% confidence interval 34.3%-60.9%
control: 10.2%, 95% CI 3.8%-20.8%; P<0.001
cumulative incidence rates of fever, anorexia, and nausea/vomiting within 120 hours
- higher in control group than those in the dexamethasone group (P<0.001, P<0.001, and P=0.095, respectively)
nutritional state
In both treatment groups, mean levels of prealbumin and retinol-binding protein decreased from baseline to days 3 and 7 and recovered by week 12.
- Mean changes in prealbumin and retinol-binding protein levels between baseline and days 3 and 7 were significantly greater with the control regimen than with the dexamethasone regimen (day 3, P=0.016 and P<0.001, respectively; day 7, P=0.012 and P=0.025, respectively)
radiological tumor response at 4 and 12 weeks
- no significant differences between the dexamethasone and control groups according to both the RECIST version 1.1 and mRECIST
HBV reactivation
- no patient exhibited HBV reactivation during the observation period


Author's Conclusion:  In conclusion, the dexamethasone-containing prophylactic regimen was superior to the control regimen for the prevention of fever, anorexia, and nausea/vomiting in HCC patients receiving TACE. This study demonstrated the utility and tolerability of dexamethasone for the prevention of postembolization syndrome with respect to TACE, based on a well-designed randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Our results provide a standard for further development of prophylactic regimens to prevent TACE-induced postembolization syndrome.
Methodical Notes

OXFORD (2011) Appraisal Sheet: Prognostic Studies: 1 Bewertung(en)
Funding Sources:  no statement

COI:  none

Randomization:  none

Blinding:  none

Dropout Rate/ITT-Analysis:  From the initial cohort, 12 patients were lost to follow-up and were excluded (initial cohort= 185 patients with 173 finally analysed)

Notes:  Literatur from submitted hand search.
Evidence level 4: Prospective study without blinding and reference standard
Malagari, K. et al. Chemoembolization with doxorubicin-eluting beads for unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma: five-year survival analysis. Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol. 35. 1119-28. 2012
Population Intervention Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  4

Study type:  prospective nonrandomized, 1-arm interventional trial

Number of Patient:  initial cohort= 185 patients with 173 finally analysed

Recruitung Phase:  November 2004 until the end of 2007

Inclusion Criteria:  - intermediate-stage HCC
- bilirubin ≤3 mg/dl, aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine amino transferase (ALT) ≤270 IU/l.
- chemo-naive

Exclusion Criteria:  - arteriovenous shunts
- thrombus within main portal vein
- extrahepatic metastases
- listed for transplantation
Intervention:  chemoembolization with DC Beads loaded with doxorubicin (DEB-DOX) every 2 or 3 months
- 3 procedures were the routine number of scheduled sessions unless complete response was achieved with two treatments.
- During the scheduled DEB-DOX sessions, patients were not receiving any additional treatment with the exception of antiviral medication.
- During follow-up, additional therapy (DEB-DOX, ablation, systemic therapy) was applied if suitable.


Comparison:  none
Primary:  5-year survival rate

Secondary:  

Results:  Mean overall survival= 43.8 months (range 1.2–64.8)
- 48.7 months for Child class A
- 36.7 months for Child class B
1, 3, and 5 year survival rates= 93.6%, 62%, and 22.5%
- higher rates achieved in Child class A compared with class B (p=0.029)
Multivariate analysis
Number of lesions, lesion hypervascularity, additional local ablation, sorafenib administration and initially achieved CR and OR are significant and independent determinants of 5-year survival.

Author's Conclusion:  Conclusively, this study (1) shows overall survival rates of 93.6, 62, and 22.5% at 1, 3, and 5 years after sequential sessions of DEB-DOX in HCC patients not amenable to curative treatments and (2) indicates that initially achieved CR and OR are significant and independent determinants of 5-year survival. However, this was a single-arm study, and more solid data are necessary from a randomized study with c-TACE with survival among the primary end points.
Methodical Notes

NEWCASTLE - OTTAWA Checklist: Cohort: 1 Bewertung(en)
Takayasu, K. et al. Overall survival after transarterial lipiodol infusion chemotherapy with or without embolization for unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma: propensity score analysis. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 194. 830-7. 2010
Evidence level Methodical Notes Patient characteristics Interventions
Evidence level:  3

Study type:  cohort study, multi-center (Japan)
Funding sources:  no statement

Conflict of Interests:  no statement

Randomization:  none

Blinding:  none

Dropout rates:  none
Total no. patients:  11030 patients with unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma:
- 8507 in TACE-group
- 2523 in transarterial infusion therapy group

Recruiting Phase:  January 1994–December 2001

Inclusion criteria:  patients with unresectable HCC who underwent TACE or iodized oil transarterial infusion therapy without embolization as initial treatment

Exclusion criteria:  - extrahepatic metastasis to lymph nodes and other organs
- any previous treatment before the one studied
Interventions:  iodized oil transarterial chemoembolization (TACE)


Comparison:  transarterial infusion therapy with an emulsion of iodized oil and an anticancer agent
Notes: Literatur from submitted hand search.
Evidence level 3: nonrandomized cohort study

Author's conclusion:  Although a randomized controlled trial remains the reference standard, our analysis of an entire sample and of matched patients with a propensity score showed that in the care of patients with unresectable HCC, the survival rate associated with TACE was significantly higher than that associated with iodized oil infusion chemotherapy without embolization. These results may enhance or change decision-making about the strategy for transcatheter arterial therapy for HCC.
Outcome Measures/results Primary  all-cause mortality

Secondary  
Results:  crude survival
- TACE-group: 1-, 2-, 3-, 4-, 5-, and 7-year overall survival rates: 82%, 62%, 46%, 34%, 25% and 15%; median survival time 2.74 years
- no embolization group: 1-, 2-, 3-, 4-, 5-, and 7-year overall survival rates: 66%, 45%, 31%, 23%, 15% and 7%; median survival time 1.69 years
- TACE was associated with a significantly higher survival rate than infusion therapy without embolization (hazard ratio, 0.60; 95% CI, 0.56–0.64; p = 0.0001).
propensity score analysis
- groups were matched for the factors age, sex, degree of liver damage, hepatitis B and C virus status, max. tumor size, no. of tumors, degree of portal vein invasion, degree of hepatic vein invasion, alpha-Fetoprotein level, TNM stage
- TACE-group: 1-, 2-, 3-, 4-, 5-, and 7-year overall survival rates: 81%, 62%, 46%, 34%, 25% and 15%; median survival time 2.74 years
- no embolization group: 1-, 2-, 3-, 4-, 5-, and 7-year overall survival rates: 71%, 49%, 33%, 23%, 16%, and 7%; median survival time 1.98 years
- TACE was associated with a significantly higher survival rate than infusion therapy without embolization (HR, 0.70; 95% CI, 0.63–0.76; p = 0.0001).

HCC TARE

Schlüsselfrage:

HCC 17 SIRT
Profitieren Patienten mit einem auf die Leber beschränkten lokal fortgeschrittenen Tumor von einer SIRT?

Inhalt: 3 Literaturstellen
Literaturstelle Evidenzlevel Studientyp
Casadei Gardini, A. 2018 1 Systematic review and Meta-analysis of prospective randomized trials.
TARE vs. TACE for unresectable HCC.
Ludwig, J. M. 2017 2 Systematic review and Meta-analysis.
DEB-TACE vs. 90Y-radioembolization for HCC.
Yang, Y. 2018 1 Systematic review and meta-analysis.
Evaluation of the effects and safety of cTACE and TARE (90Y) regimens for HCC.


OXFORD (2011) Appraisal Sheet: Systematic Reviews: 3 Bewertung(en)
Casadei Gardini, A. et al. Radioembolization versus chemoembolization for unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma: a meta-analysis of randomized trials. Onco Targets Ther. 11. 7315-7321. 2018
Evidence level/Study Types P - I - C Outcomes/Results Literature References
Evidence level:  1

Study type:  Systematic review and Meta-analysis of prospective randomized trials.
TARE vs. TACE for unresectable HCC.
Databases:  PubMed, Cochrane Library, and Embase.

Search period:  Inception -until 04.2017

Inclusion Criteria:  Randomized controlled trials, patients with HCC were considered, TACE compared with with TARE/SIRT; published as full-text articles in a peer-reviewed journal.

Exclusion Criteria:  not described.
Population:  3 RCTs included. SIRTACE, Mainz, PREMIERE. n=49for TARE, n=48 for TACE. Mean age ranged from 62-71.8 years and %males from 71-87 between trial groups.

Intervention:  TACE

Comparison:  TARE
Primary:  1 year survival, 1 year progression-free survival, overall survival, disease progression, disease control rate, or transplantation rate

Secondary:  -

Results:  Overall survival at 1 year: no differences in overall survival at 1 year between the two treatment groups (OR =1.31, 95%CI: 0.56–3.04, P=0.53).
Progression free survival: at 1 year not statistically different between the two treatments (OR =0.23, 95% CI: 0.02–2.45, P=0.22).
progression rates not significantly different between groups, with OR values of 0.61 (95% CI: 0.14–2.70, P=0.51).
disease control rates were also not significantly different between groups, with OR 1.80 (95% CI: 0.51–6.30, P=0.36).
Transplantation rate: Higher portion ofpatients underwent transplantation in the TARE group (30% vs 20.8%), such difference was not statistically significant (OR =0.68 95% CI: 0.23–2.01, P=0.49),

Author's Conclusion:  "Our meta-analysis reveals that TARE and TACE have similar effects in unresectable HCC patients in terms of overall survival, disease control rate, transplantation rate, and progression rate. It is very unlikely that further trials will be conducted in unrestricted HCC populations, and our results suggest that comparative trials could better focus on specific indications, including lobar portal vein invasion, downstaging, or reduction of the dropout rate from transplant waiting lists."
Salem R, et al. Radioembolization Significantly Prolongs Time to Progression Compared With Chemoembolization in Patients With Hepatocellular Carcinoma, Gastroenterology. 2016;151(6):1155–1163.
Pitton MB, et al. Randomized comparison of selective internal radiotherapy (SIRT) versus drug-eluting bead transarterial chemoembolization (DEB-TACE) for the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma. Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol 2015;38(2):352–360.
Kolligs FT, et al. Pilot randomized trial of selective internal radiation therapy vs. chemoembolization in unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma. Liver Int. 2015;35(6):1715–1721.
Methodical Notes
Funding Sources:  not described.

COI:  "Mercedes Iñarrairaegui has received lecture fees from Bayer Healthcare. Bruno Sangro has received lecture or consult fees from SIRTEX Medical and BTG. The authors report no other conflicts of interest in this work."

Study Quality:  Yes "All selected trials .. were analyzed and classified using the Jadad score when possible."

Heterogeneity:  "A significant heterogeneity between the trials was detected for progression-free survival (I2 test: 76%)"

Publication Bias:  not investigated

Notes:  
Inclusion and exclusion criteria are vague. High heterogeneity for progression free survival outcome. Publication bias not investigated.
Two of three studies (Kolligs, Riad et al.)are also included in the Meta-Analysis by Yang et al. 2018. However this article investigates partially different outcomes (progression-free survival), therfor no exclusion is necessary.

Ludwig, J. M. et al. Meta-analysis: adjusted indirect comparison of drug-eluting bead transarterial chemoembolization versus (90)Y-radioembolization for hepatocellular carcinoma. Eur Radiol. 27. 2031-2041. 2017
Evidence level/Study Types P - I - C Outcomes/Results Literature References
Evidence level:  2

Study type:  Systematic review and Meta-analysis.
DEB-TACE vs. 90Y-radioembolization for HCC.
Databases:  PubMed/MEDLINE Library, Cochrane, and Embase Database

Search period:  01/2005-12/2014.

Inclusion Criteria:  Studies comparing DEB-TACE or 90Y-radioembolization with cTACE for HCC treatment

Exclusion Criteria:  Studies were excluded if they dealt with treatment of liver metastasis, primary liver tumours other than HCC, lack of inclusion of at least intermediate or advanced stages of BCLC patients or a comparable staging system, concurrent other treatment, or when only a subgroup (e.g. follow-up of patients after complete tumour remission only) or specifically selected patients (e.g. prior/after liver transplantation) were included in studies. In general, studies were excluded if reported information was lacking detailed information (e.g. survival data) or data was already presumably reported in another, relevant publication. Only the most recent or complete publication was included. Reviews without original data, abstracts only, editorials, letters, case reports, expert opinions, and single-arm studies, as well as studies in languages other than English were excluded.
Population:  HCC patients.
Study population: 7 studies comparing DEB-TACE versus cTACE (660 patients with 331 in DEBTACE
group) and 7 studies on 90Yradioembolization versus cTACE (1405 patients with 405 inthe 90Y-radioembolization group) were selected for meta-analysis.
3 of these were RCTs, with 2 in DEB-TACE and one in the 90Yradioembolization
treatment arm.
Comparison of tumour size and patients’ baseline characteristics only revealed a statistically significant, but not relevant differencefor BCLC stage D between DEB-TACE and 90Yradioembolization studies (0 % vs. 0.8 %; p =0.024).

Intervention:  DEB-TACE

Comparison:  90Y-radioembolization
Primary:  1-, 2-, and 3-year survival.

Secondary:  Overall response status.

Results:  Survival analysis pooled median overall survival estimate for DEB-TACE versus 90Y-radioembolization was 22.6 and 14.7 months. 1-year survival rate
significantly favoured DEB-TACE, with a pooled survival rate estimate of 79 % versus 54.8 % and an OR of 0.57 (95 % confidence interval (CI): 0.36–0.92; p = 0.02). Stratification revealed that this effect was mainly derived from observational study and was not significant in RCTs (see article).
2 and 3-year survival rate
Effect of the 1 year analysis was was present but not for the 2-year (61 % vs. 34 %; OR: 0.65; 95%CI: 0.294-1.437; p = 0.29) and 3 year survival 3-year survival (56.4 % vs. 20.9 %; OR:0.713; 95 % CI: 0.21-2.548; p= 0.62).
Because of the significant heterogeneity in DEB-TACE versus cTACE studies, evidence for 2-year (I-squared: 71.3 %, p =0.002) and 3-year (I-squared: 79.8 %, p=0.002) survival was limited.
Secondary outcome: Tumour response rate: different response rate
were used including mRECIST, RECIST, WHO, EASL, AFP. mRECIST was the
most frequently reported criteria, in the 3most recent studies in the DEB-TACE arm
most recent studies in the DEB-TACE arm and 2 studies in the 90Y-radioembolization arm. Available mRECIST overall response: no significant difference (OR: 0.71; 95 % CI: 0.13–4.08, p = 0.07), although results favoured DEB-TACE, but high heterogeneity (I-squared: 79.1 %; p = 0.03).
Safety, hospitalization, number of treatments: No meta-analysis, see paper

Author's Conclusion:  "This indirect meta-analytical comparison of 736 patients treated with 90Y-radioembolization or DEB-TACE showed a survival benefit at 1-year for DEB-TACE over 90Yradioembolization and a favourable survival trend at 2 and 3 years for DEB-TACE. However, this indirect comparison is not without limitations warranting for further direct comparative evaluation of DEB-TACE vs. 90Y-radioembolization."
Golfieri R, et al. (2014) Randomised controlled trial of doxorubicin-eluting beads vs conventional chemoembolisation for hepatocellular carcinoma. Br J Cancer 111:255–264
Recchia F, et al (2012) Chemoembolization of unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma: Decreased toxicity with slow-release doxorubicineluting beads compared with lipiodol.Oncol Rep 27:1377–1383
Song MJ, et al (2012) Comparative study between doxorubicin-eluting beads and conventional transarterial chemoembolization for treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma. J Hepatol 57:1244–1250
Sacco R, et al (2011) Conventional versus doxorubicin-eluting bead trans-arterial chemoembolization for hepatocellular carcinoma. J Vasc Interv Radiol 22:1545–1552
Ferrer Puchol MD, et al (2011) Comparison of doxorubicin-eluting bead trans-arterial chemoembolization (DEBTACE) with conventional transarterial chemo-embolization(TACE) for the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma. Radiologia
53:246–253
Wiggermann P, et al (2011) Transarterial Chemoembolization of Child-A hepatocellular carcinoma: drugeluting bead TACE (DEB TACE) vs. TACE with cisplatin/lipiodol (cTACE). Med Sci Monit 17:CR189–CR195
Dhanasekaran R, et al (2010) Comparison of conventional transarterial chemo-embolization (TACE) and chemoembolization with doxorubicin drug eluting beads (DEB) for unresectable hepatocelluar carcinoma(HCC). J Surg Oncol 101:476–480
Kolligs FT, et al (2014) Pilot randomized trial of selective internal radiation therapy vs. chemoembolization in unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma. Liver Int. doi:10.1111/liv.12750
El Fouly A, et al (2015) In intermediate stage hepatocellular carcinoma: radioembolization with yttrium 90 or chemoembolization? Liver Int 35:627–635
Moreno-Luna LE, Yang JD, Sanchez Wet al (2013) Efficacy and safety of trans-arterial radioembolization versus chemoembolization in patients with hepato-cellular carcinoma. Cardiovasc InterventRadiol 36:714–723
Salem R, et al (2011) Radioembolization results in longer time-to-progression and reduced toxicity compared with chemoembolization in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma.Gastroenterology 140:497–507, e492
Lance C, et al (2011) Comparative analysis of the safety and efficacy of transcatheter arterial chemoembolization and yttrium-90 radioembolization in patients with unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma. J Vasc Interv Radiol
22:1697–1705
Kooby DA, et al (2010) Comparison of yttrium-90 radioembolization and trans-catheter arterial chemoembolization for the treatment of unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma. J Vasc Interv Radiol 21:224–230
Carr BI, Kondragunta V, Buch SC, Branch RA (2010) Therapeutic equivalence in survival for hepatic arterial chemoembolization and yttrium 90 microsphere treatments in unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma: a two-cohort study. Cancer 116:1305–1314
Methodical Notes
Funding Sources:  "The authors state that this work has not received any funding."

COI:  "The authors of this manuscript declare no relationships with any companies, whose products or services may be related to the subject matter of the article."

Study Quality:  Study quality was not investigated.

Heterogeneity:  High heterogeneity was found for the 2 (I-squared: 71.3 %,p =0.002) and 3 year (I-squared: 79.8 %, p=0.002) survival outcome, not for 1 year survival outcome.

Publication Bias:  "There was significant publication bias in the studies used for the 3-year analysis in DEBTACE versus cTACE studies (Egger’s test: p=0.02; Begg’stest: p = 0.04)."

Notes:  
Study quality not investigated. High heterogeneity in the 2 and 3 year overall survival, but this is considered for the conclusion and investigated in the article.
Downgraded to evidence level 2 due to low quality

Yang, Y. et al. Yttrium-90 transarterial radioembolization versus conventional transarterial chemoembolization for patients with hepatocellular carcinoma: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Cancer Biol Med. 15. 299-310. 2018
Evidence level/Study Types P - I - C Outcomes/Results Literature References
Evidence level:  1

Study type:  Systematic review and meta-analysis.
Evaluation of the effects and safety of cTACE and TARE (90Y) regimens for HCC.
Databases:  PubMed, Embase, EBSCO, Cochrane Library, Web of Science, and MedLine, ClinicalTrials.gov

Search period:  01/2009-07/2017

Inclusion Criteria:  1) Randomized controlled trials (RCT), observational studies, and clinical studies. 2) Patients were diagnosed with HCC. 3) cTACE or TARE (90Y) as monotherapy. 4) Showed the effects and/or safety after treatment with cTACE or TARE (90Y).

Exclusion Criteria:  1) Reviews, commentaries, case reports, meeting abstracts, experimental studies, systematic reviews, and meta-analyses. 2) No comparison between cTACE and TARE (90Y) therapies. 3) cTACE combined with TARE (90Y). 4) Drug eluting bead-TACE(DEB-TACE) as monotherapy. 5) Lacked key data from outcomes after treatment with cTACE or TARE (90Y).
Population:  HCC patients. 11 studies included in the meta-analysis (2 RCTs, 9 observational studies). Samle size 28-790. Age mean 58-66. Details on gender, tumor classification see article.

Intervention:  cTACE

Comparison:  TARE (90Y)
Primary:  1-year and 2-year overall survival (OS) rates, objective responses (ORs), and
serious adverse events (AEs).

Secondary:  -

Results:  1-year OS rates: No significant differences in 1-year OS rates (OR* = 0.939, 95% CI: 0.705–1.251, P = 0.66), 10 studies, fixed effects model.
2-year OS rates: (OR* = 0.575, 95% CI: 0.336–0.984, P = 0.043), 9 studies, random effects model, demonstrated that the TARE (90Y) group had a significantly higher 2-year OS rate than the cTACE group in observational studies.
Objective response: 9 studies (4 with WHO criteria, 5 with mRECIST criteria).
Significant differences were found in the mRECIST subgroup (OR* = 0.584, 95% CI: 0.349–0.976, P = 0.040), favoring TARE (90Y).
No significant differences were noted in the WHO subgroup analysis (OR* = 1.065; 95% CI:0.500–2.268, P = 0.870). Overall pooled analysis (OR* = 0.781, 95% CI: 0.454–1.343, P = 0.371) was considered to have statistics that were less constructive than those of the other analyses and poorly reliable.
Serious adverse events9 studies, serious AEs were defined as AEs of grades 3/4 (CTCAE V3.0). Subgroup and overall pooled analyses demonstrated that
there was no significant difference among modalities in serious AEs using random effects model (RCT RR = 0.680; 95% CI: 0.325–1.423, P = 0.306; observational study RR = 1.925; 95% CI: 0.978–3.788, P = 0.058; overall pooled RR = 1.477, 95% CI: 0.864–2.526, P = 0.154),

Author's Conclusion:  "Although additional studies are urgently needed to establish clinical trials and RCTs, our findings generally support the application of TARE (90Y) for patients with HCC (especially intermediate or advanced stages) as a therapy that might be
superior to cTACE, in 2-year OS rates and OR rates, according mRECIST criteria."
Soydal C, et al. Comparison of survival, safety, and efficacy after transarterial chemoembolization and radioembolization of Barcelona Clinic
Liver Cancer stage B-C hepatocellular cancer patients. Nucl Med Commun. 2016; 37: 646-9.
Salem R, et al. Y90 radioembolization significantly prolongs time to progression
compared with chemoembolization in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma. Gastroenterology. 2016; 151: 1155-63.e2.
Kolligs FT, et al. Pilot randomized trial of selective internal radiation therapy vs. chemoembolization in unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma. Liver Int. 2015; 35: 1715-21.
El Fouly A, et al. In intermediate stage hepatocellular carcinoma: radio-embolization with yttrium 90 or chemoembolization? Liver Int. 2015; 35: 627-35.
She WH, et al. Survival analysis of transarterial radioembolization with
yttrium-90 for hepatocellular carcinoma patients with HBV infection. Hepatobiliary Surg Nutr. 2014; 3: 185-93.
Moreno-Luna LE, et al. Efficacy and safety of transarterial radioembolization versus chemoembolization in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma. Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol.2013; 36: 714-23.
Salem R, et al. Radioembolization results in longer time-to-progression and
reduced toxicity compared with chemoembolization in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma. Gastroenterology. 2011;140: 497-507.e2.
Lance C, et al. Comparative analysis of the safety and efficacy of transcatheter arterial chemoembolization and yttrium-90 radioembolization in patients with unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma. J Vasc Interv Radiol. 2011; 22: 1697-705.
Kooby DA, et al. Comparison of yttrium-90 radioembolization and transcatheter arterial chemoembolization for the treatment of unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma. J Vasc Interv Radiol.2010; 21: 224-30.
Carr BI, et al. Therapeutic equivalence in survival for hepatic arterial chemoembolization and yttrium 90 microsphere treatments in unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma: a two-cohort study. Cancer. 2010; 116: 1305-14.
Lewandowski RJ, et al. A comparative analysis of transarterial downstaging
for hepatocellular carcinoma: chemoembolization versus radioembolization. Am J Transplant. 2009; 9: 1920-8.
Methodical Notes
Funding Sources:  not described.

COI:  "No potential conflicts of interest are disclosed."

Study Quality:  "A quality assessment of the extracted studies was performed according to the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale (NOS), which grades the quality of observational studies on a 9-point scale. The risk of bias for RCTs was assessed using the Cochrane Collaboration tool of RevMan."
"All 9 observational studies were judged as high quality. One RCT, with more than two high-risk components, was considered to have a moderate risk of bias, and another RCT was determined to have a low risk of bias."

Heterogeneity:  "Great heterogeneity was observed because both observational studies and RCTs were included in the meta-analysis." "We used the Q- and I2-tests to evaluate data heterogeneity, where P < 0.1, for the Q-test, or I2 > 50% represented significant heterogeneity. Sensitivity analysis was conducted by limiting the quality of the studies. Only studies that were determined to be of high quality, or with moderate /low risk of bias, were extracted"

Publication Bias:  "No significant publication bias was found using funnel plots. Egger's test: 1-year OS rate group, P = 0.605; 2-year OS rate group, P = 0.591; serious AEs group, P =0.797."

Notes:  
High heterogeneity in some analyses, but this is well discussed, investigated and interpreted in the article.

HCC Abou-Alfa 2022 DT HIMALAYA

A Randomized, Open-label, Multi-center Phase III Study of Durvalumab and Tremelimumab as First-line Treatment in Patients With Advanced Hepatocellular Carcinoma (NCT03298451)
Short Name Design Population Intervention Comparator Outcomes
HIMALAYA
D419CC00002
Randomized, Parallel Assignment, Phase 3 Open Label study Treatment-naive with Stage 3-4 and ECOG 0-1 Hepatocellular Carcinoma 1. STRIDE (N=393)1
2. Durvalumab (N=389)2
Sorafenib (N=389)3
  1. Primary: Overall Survival
  2. Secondary: Time to Progression
  3. Secondary: Progression-free survival
  4. Secondary: Objective response rate
  5. Secondary: Disease control rate
  6. Secondary: Duration of response
  7. Other: Adverse events
Levels of Evidence
GRADE ⊕⊕⊖⊖a,b Our confidence in the effect estimate is limited: The true effect may be substantially different from the estimate of the effect.
1: Single Tremelimumab Regular Interval Durvalumab [STRIDE]: Tremelimumab (300 mg, one dose) plus Durvalumab (1500 mg every 4 weeks); 2: Durvalumab (1500 mg every 4 weeks); 3: Sorafenib (400 mg twice daily)
a: Open Label Study;b: Uncertain transferability to the German healthcare context (proportion of European patients <50%)

Outcome STRIDE N=393 Sorafenib N=389 Effect Estimate GRADE
Tremelimumab Plus Durvalumab in Unresectable Hepatocellular Carcinoma. STRIDE vs. Sorafenib: Abou-Alfa, GK 2022. Tremelimumab Plus Durvalumab in Unresectable Hepatocellular Carcinoma. ; 1 (8)*
Dichotomous Outcomes
OS - Time To Event N=393 16.43 [14.16; 19.58] N=389 13.77 [12.25; 16.13] HR 0.78 [0.65; 0.93]; p=0.0035 ⊕⊕⊕⊖
Age at randomization
<65 yr N=195 N=195 HR 0.82 [0.65; 1.04]
>65 yr N=196 N=194 HR 0.73 [0.58; 0.93]
Alpha-fetoprotein at baseline
<400 ng/ml N=167 N=182 HR 0.82 [0.63; 1.05]
>400 ng/ml N=98 N=71 HR 0.64 [0.45; 0.91]
BCLC
B N=77 N=66 HR 0.87 [0.57; 1.33]
C N=316 N=323 HR 0.76 [0.63; 0.91]
ECOG performance status at baseline
0 N=244 N=241 HR 0.79 [0.63; 0.98]
1 N=148 N=147 HR 0.74 [0.57; 0.95]
Etiology of liver disease
HBV N=122 N=119 HR 0.64 [0.48; 0.86]
HCV N=110 N=104 HR 1.06 [0.76; 1.49]
nonviral N=161 N=166 HR 0.74 [0.57; 0.95]
Extrahepatic spread
no N=182 N=185 HR 0.87 [0.67; 1.11]
yes N=209 N=203 HR 0.67 [0.53; 0.84]
Macrovascular invasion
no N=290 N=289 HR 0.77 [0.63; 0.93]
no and no extrahepatic spread N=128 N=137 HR 0.79 [0.58; 1.06]
yes N=103 N=100 HR 0.78 [0.57; 1.07]
yes and/or extrahepatic spread N=263 N=251 HR 0.73 [0.59; 0.89]
Region
Asia (except Japan) N=156 N=156 HR 0.71 [0.54; 0.92]
Rest of world (incl. Japan) N=237 N=233 HR 0.82 [0.66; 1.02]
Sex
Female N=66 N=52 HR 1.02 [0.67; 1.56]
Male N=327 N=337 HR 0.73 [0.61; 0.88]
PFS - Time To Event N=393 3.78 [3.68; 5.32] N=389 4.07 [3.75; 5.49] HR 0.9 [0.77; 1.05] ⊕⊖⊖⊖a
DCR - Time To Event N=393 236 (60.05%) N=389 236 (60.67%) OR 0.97 [0.732; 1.298]; p=0.8599 ⊕⊕⊖⊖
DOR - Time To Event N=393 22.34 [8.54; ] N=389 18.43 [6.51; 25.99] ⊕⊕⊖⊖
ORR - TuDD N=393 79 (20.1%) N=389 20 (5.14%) RR 3.91 [2.443; 6.257]; p=0.0000 ⊕⊕⊖⊖
TTP - TTE N=393 5.4 [3.8; 5.6] N=389 5.6 [5.1; 5.8] ⊕⊕⊖⊖
EORTC QLQ-C30 (Global Health Status) - TTD N=393 7.5 [5.82; 10.84] N=389 5.7 [4.8; 7.39] HR 0.76 [0.61; 0.96] ⊕⊕⊖⊖
AE (Any) N=388 378 (97.42%) N=374 357 (95.45%) RR 1.02 [0.993; 1.049]; p=0.1444 ⊕⊕⊖⊖
AE (CTCAE ≥3) N=388 196 (50.52%) N=374 196 (52.41%) RR 0.96 [0.84; 1.106]; p=0.6015 ⊕⊕⊕⊖
AE-D (Any) N=388 30 (7.73%) N=374 27 (7.22%) RR 1.07 [0.65; 1.766]; p=0.7880 ⊕⊕⊖⊖
AE-Disc (Any) N=388 53 (13.66%) N=374 63 (16.84%) RR 0.81 [0.579; 1.135]; p=0.2223 ⊕⊕⊖⊖
irAE (CTCAE ≥3) N=388 49 (12.63%) N=374 9 (2.41%) RR 5.25 [2.615; 10.531]; p=0.0000 ⊕⊕⊕⊖
irAE-D (Any) N=388 6 (1.55%) N=374 0 (0%) RR 12.53 [0.708; 221.692]; p=0.0846 ⊕⊕⊖⊖
SAE (Any) N=388 157 (40.46%) N=374 111 (29.68%) RR 1.36 [1.119; 1.661]; p=0.0021 ⊕⊕⊖⊖
TAE (Any) N=388 294 (75.77%) N=374 317 (84.76%) RR 0.89 [0.833; 0.96]; p=0.0019 ⊕⊕⊖⊖
TAE (CTCAE ≥3) N=388 100 (25.77%) N=374 138 (36.9%) RR 0.7 [0.564; 0.866]; p=0.0011 ⊕⊕⊕⊖
TAE-D (Any) N=388 9 (2.32%) N=374 3 (0.8%) RR 2.89 [0.789; 10.599]; p=0.1091 ⊕⊕⊖⊖
TAE-Disc (Any) N=388 32 (8.25%) N=374 41 (10.96%) RR 0.75 [0.485; 1.168]; p=0.2049 ⊕⊕⊖⊖
TirAE (CTCAE ≥3) N=388 49 (12.63%) N=374 9 (2.41%) RR 5.25 [2.615; 10.531]; p=0.0000 ⊕⊕⊕⊖
TirAE-D (Any) N=388 6 (1.55%) N=374 0 (0%) RR 12.53 [0.708; 221.692]; p=0.0846 ⊕⊕⊖⊖
TSAE (Any) N=388 68 (17.53%) N=374 35 (9.36%) RR 1.87 [1.278; 2.745]; p=0.0013 ⊕⊕⊖⊖
Outcome Durvalumab N=389 Sorafenib N=389 Effect Estimate GRADE
Tremelimumab Plus Durvalumab in Unresectable Hepatocellular Carcinoma. Durvalumab vs. Sorafenib: Abou-Alfa, GK 2022. Tremelimumab Plus Durvalumab in Unresectable Hepatocellular Carcinoma. ; 1 (8)**
Dichotomous Outcomes
OS - Time To Event N=389 16.56 [14.06; 19.12] N=389 13.77 [12.25; 16.13] HR 0.86 [0.73; 1.03]; p=0.0674 ⊕⊕⊕⊖
Extrahepatic spread
No N=176 N=185 HR 0.9 [0.7; 1.15]
Yes N=212 N=203 HR 0.79 [0.64; 0.98]
PFS - Time To Event N=389 3.65 [3.19; 3.75] N=389 4.07 [3.75; 5.49] HR 1.02 [0.88; 1.19] ⊕⊖⊖⊖a
DCR - Time To Event N=389 213 (54.76%) N=389 236 (60.67%) OR 0.78 [0.59; 1.043]; p=0.0953 ⊕⊕⊖⊖
DOR - Time To Event N=389 16.82 [7.43; ] N=389 18.43 [6.51; 25.99] ⊕⊕⊖⊖
ORR - TuDD N=389 66 (16.97%) N=389 20 (5.14%) RR 3.3 [2.042; 5.334]; p=0.0000 ⊕⊕⊖⊖
TTR - TTE N=389 2.09 [1.87; 3.98] N=389 3.78 [1.89; 8.44] ⊕⊕⊖⊖
EORTC QLQ-C30 (Global Health Status) - TTC N=389 7.4 [5.68; 9.33] N=389 5.7 [4.8; 7.39] HR 0.77 [0.62; 0.96] ⊕⊕⊖⊖
AE (Any) N=388 345 (88.92%) N=374 357 (95.45%) RR 0.93 [0.894; 0.971]; p=0.0008 ⊕⊕⊖⊖
AE (CTCAE ≥3) N=388 144 (37.11%) N=374 196 (52.41%) RR 0.71 [0.603; 0.832]; p=0.0000 ⊕⊕⊕⊖
AE-D (Any) N=388 26 (6.7%) N=374 27 (7.22%) RR 0.93 [0.552; 1.56]; p=0.7787 ⊕⊕⊖⊖
AE-Disc (Any) N=388 32 (8.25%) N=374 63 (16.84%) RR 0.49 [0.328; 0.731]; p=0.0005 ⊕⊕⊖⊖
irAE (CTCAE ≥3) N=388 25 (6.44%) N=374 9 (2.41%) RR 2.68 [1.267; 5.66]; p=0.0099 ⊕⊕⊕⊖
irAE-D (Any) N=388 0 (0%) N=374 0 (0%) RR 0.96 [0.019; 48.462]; p=0.9854 ⊕⊕⊖⊖
SAE (Any) N=388 115 (29.64%) N=374 111 (29.68%) RR 1 [0.802; 1.243]; p=0.9904 ⊕⊕⊖⊖
TAE (Any) N=388 202 (52.06%) N=374 317 (84.76%) RR 0.61 [0.553; 0.682]; p=0.0000 ⊕⊕⊖⊖
TAE (CTCAE ≥3) N=388 50 (12.89%) N=374 138 (36.9%) RR 0.35 [0.261; 0.467]; p=0.0000 ⊕⊕⊕⊖
TAE-D (Any) N=388 0 (0%) N=374 3 (0.8%) RR 0.14 [0.007; 2.657]; p=0.1892 ⊕⊕⊖⊖
TAE-Disc (Any) N=388 16 (4.12%) N=374 41 (10.96%) RR 0.38 [0.215; 0.659]; p=0.0006 ⊕⊕⊖⊖
TirAE (CTCAE ≥3) N=388 24 (6.19%) N=374 9 (2.41%) RR 2.57 [1.211; 5.457]; p=0.0140 ⊕⊕⊕⊖
TirAE-D (Any) N=388 0 (0%) N=374 0 (0%) RR 0.96 [0.019; 48.462]; p=0.9854 ⊕⊕⊖⊖
TSAE (Any) N=388 32 (8.25%) N=374 35 (9.36%) RR 0.88 [0.558; 1.393]; p=0.5886 ⊕⊕⊖⊖
*Database cutoff: not reported
**Database cutoff: not reported
a: Missing individual analysis of combined endpoint componenets (progression)
AE: Adverse Events; AE-D: Adverse Events Leading to Death; AE-Disc: Adverse Events Leading to Treatment Discontinuation; Any: Any Grade; CTCAE ≥3: Common Terminology Criteria for Adverse Events, Grade ≥3; DCR: Disease Control Rate; DOR: Duration Of Response; EORTC QLQ-C30: European Organisation for Research and Treatment of Cancer Quality of Life Questionnaire C30; Global Health Status: Global Health Status; irAE: Immun-related Advers Events; irAE-D: Immun-related Advers Events Leading to Death; ORR: Objective Response Rate; OS: Overall Survival; PFS: Progression-Free Survival; SAE: Serious Adverse Events; TAE: Treatment-related Adverse Events; TAE-D: Treatment-related Adverse Events Leading to Death; TAE-Disc: Treatment-related Adverse Events Leading to Treatment Discontinuation; TirAE: Treatment-related immun-related Advers Events; TirAE-D: Treatment-related immun-related Advers Events Leading to Death; TSAE: Treatment-related Serious Adverse Events; TTC: Time To Change ; TTD: Time to Deterioration ; TTE: Time To Event ; TTP: Time to Progression; TTR: Time To Response; TuDD: Time to Definitive Deterioration
HCC Sorafenib
Wang, H. et al. Alternative treatment strategies to sorafenib in patients with advanced hepatocellular carcinoma: a meta-analysis of randomized Phase III trials. Onco Targets Ther. 11. 5195-5201. 2018
Evidence level/Study Types P - I - C Outcomes/Results Literature References
Evidence level:  1

Study type:  systematic review and meta analysis
Databases:  PubMed, Embase, Chinese National Knowledge Infrastructure, and Wanfang

Search period:  none

Inclusion Criteria:  - randomized Phase III trials,
- OS or TTP reported,
- one treatment group receiving sorafenib and the other receiving other TKIs or SIRT,
- HCC patients with Child–Pugh A or B liver-function status, performance status (PS) 0–1, and Barcelona Clinic Liver Cancer B or C

Exclusion Criteria:  - Reviews
- retrospective studies
- studies unrelated to the topics
- studies without outcomes of interest
Population:  HCC patients with Child–Pugh A or B liver-function status, performance status (PS) 0–1, and Barcelona Clinic Liver Cancer B or C

Intervention:  sorafenib

Comparison:  other tyrosine-kinase inhibitors or Selective internal radiation therapy
Primary:  overall survival (OS)
time to progression (TTP)

Secondary:  objective response rate (ORR)
disease-control rate (DCR)
adverse events (AE)

Results:  basics
- a total of four trials in the other-TKI group (sunitinib, brivanib, linifanib, lenvatinib, each) and two trials in the SIRT group were eligible
other TKIs vs. sorafenib
Main analyses of OS and TTP
- Other TKIs showed similar benefit on OS to sorafenib for advanced HCC (HR 1.08, 95% CI 0.93–1.24; P=0.31), with heterogeneity among the trials (P=0.008, I2=74%)
- pooled HR of TTP was 0.86 (95% CI 0.66–1.12, P=0.26) with significantly high heterogeneity (I2=92%, P<0.00001)
analyses of ORR and DCR
- Other TKIs showed greater ORR than sorafenib (RR 1.67, 95% CI 1.15–2.43; P=0.008) but no improvement compared with sorafenib for DCR (RR 1.11, 95% CI 0.98–1.26; P=0.11)
AE
- other TKIs were associated with higher incidence of hypertension (RR 1.99, 95% CI 1.67–2.39; P<0.00001), fatigue (RR 1.79, 95% CI 1.42–2.26; P<0.00001), thrombocytopenia (RR 4.18, 95% CI 1.66–10.56; P=0.002), decreased appetite (RR 2.21, 95% CI 1.62–3.01; P<0.00001) and vomiting (RR 3.15, 95% CI 1.88–5.26; P<0.0001).
- hand–foot syndrome (RR 0.39, 95% CI 0.19–0.82; P=0.01) and rash (RR 0.34, 95% CI 0.17–0.68; P=0.002) occurred less frequently in the other-TKI group than the sorafenib group

SIRT vs sorafenib
Main analyses of OS and TTP
- Pooled HRs for OS and TTP were 1.14 (95% CI 0.98–1.32, P=0.09) and 0.87 (95% CI 0.74–1.02, P=0.10), showing similar efficacy in the SIRT and sorafenib groups.
- no heterogeneity between the trials for OS (I2=0, P=0.87) or TTP (I2=0; P=0.94)
analyses of ORR and DCR
- The ORR was significantly greater (RR 2.60, 95% CI 1.69–4.00; P<0.0001) in the SIRT group than the sorafenib group, but no improvement in DCR (RR 0.91, 95% CI 0.81–1.02; P=0.11) was identified in the SIRT group
AE
- The incidence of diarrhea (RR 0.10, 95% CI 0.03–0.28; P<0.0001), fatigue (RR 0.42, 95% CI 0.26–0.69) P=0.0006) and hand–foot syndrome (RR 0.04, 95% CI 0.01–0.22; P=0.0002) was significantly lower in the SIRT group
- no significant differences between SIRT and sorafenib in the occurrence of pyrexia (P=0.15), nausea (P=0.78), abdominal pain (P=0.23), ascites (P=0.62) gastric ulcer (P=0.22) or upper gastrointestinal hemorrhage (P=0.34)

Author's Conclusion:  Conclusively, other TKIs and sorafenib resulted in similar OS and TTP in advanced HCC. ORR favored other TKIs, whereas safety results favored sorafenib. For patients with locally advanced HCC, OS did not differ significantly between SIRT and sorafenib. Moreover, SIRT was associated with higher ORR and fewer AEs than sorafenib.
Cheng et al 2013, J Clin Oncol.
Johnson et al 2013, J Clin Oncol.
Cainap et al 2015, J Clin Oncol.
Kudo et al 2018, Lancet
Vilgrain et al 2017, Lancet Oncol.
Chow et al 2018, J Clin Oncol.
Methodical Notes
Funding Sources:  This work was supported by the Innovation and Entrepreneurship Program of Jiangsu Province (2017).

COI:  The authors report no conflicts of interest in this work

Study Quality:  - The Jadad scoring system was used to assess study quality, graded 0–5 depending on randomization, blinding, and dropout.
- 4 studies scored 3 points, while the other 2 scored 5 points

Heterogeneity:  - To evaluate statistical heterogeneity across the studies, χ2 and I2 statistics were used, with predefined significance for χ2 P-value <0.1 or="" i="" sup="">2>50%
- see results for heterogeneity values

Publication Bias:  not assessed

Notes:  
evidence level 1: SR and MA

OXFORD (2011) Appraisal Sheet: RCT: 13 Bewertung(en)
Funding Sources:  Supported by Exelixis. Dr. Meyer is funded in part by the University College London Hospitals Biomedical Research Centre.
The trial was designed by the first and last authors in collaboration with the sponsor, and the authors and the sponsor were responsible for data collection and analysis. The authors vouch for the fidelity of the trial to the protocol and for the accuracy and complete-ness of the data. The first and last authors wrote the first draft of the manuscript in collaboration with the sponsor. Medical writing support was provided by the sponsor.


COI:  - Dr. Abou-Alfa reports receiving consulting fees and advisory board fees from Bayer and BMS;
- Dr. Meyer, receiving grant support and consulting fees from Bayer and BTG, and consulting fees from BMS, Merck, and Eisai;
- Dr. Cheng, receiving consulting fees from BMS, Ono, MSD, and BeiGene, advisory board fees from Novartis, and consulting fees and honoraria from Bayer and Merck;
- Dr. El-Khoueiry, receiving advisory board fees and consulting fees from Bristol-Myers Squibb and Bayer, advisory board fees from Eisai, Novartis, Roche, Exelixis, Celgene and CytomX, grant support and advisory board fees from AstraZeneca, grant support from Astex, and fees for serving on a speakers’ bureau from Merrimack;
- Dr. Rimassa, receiving advisory board fees from Lilly, Bayer, Sirtex Medical, and Exelixis, consulting fees and travel support from ArQule and Ipsen, and lecture fees from AstraZeneca and AbbVie;
- Dr. Park, receiving advisory board fees from BMS, Midatech, and AstraZeneca, advisory board fees and honoraria from Ono and Eisai, and honoraria from Bayer;
- Dr. Blanc, receiving advisory board fees from Bayer, BMS, Lilly Oncology, Shire, and Onxeo;
- Dr. Bolondi, receiving advisory board fees and lecture fees from Bayer, BMS, Sirtex, and Guerbet, and lecture fees from Eli Lilly, Meda-Pharm, and Bracco;
- Dr. Klümpen, serving on an advisory board for Ipsen;
- Dr. Zagonel, receiving consulting fees,advisory board fees, and fees for serving on a speakers’ bureau from Bristol-Myers Squibb, consulting fees and advisory board fees from Celgene, consulting fees, advisory board fees, and travel support from Merck, fees for serving on a speakers’ bureau and travel support from Bayer and Roche, and fees for serving on a speakers’ bureau from Pfizer and Janssen;
- Mr. Hessel and Dr. Schwab, being employed by and holding stock in Exelixis;
- Dr. Borgman-Hagey, being employed by and holding stock in Exelixis;
- Dr. Kelley, receiving grant support and travel support paid to her institution, provision of trial drugs, and printing and processing costs from AstraZeneca, grant support paid to her institution from Acceleron, grant support paid to her institution and provision of trial drugs from Adaptimmune, Eli Lilly, MedImmune, Celgene, Regeneron, Merck, Tekmira, Novartis, and Taiho, grant support and fees for serving on a steering committee paid to her institution, and provision of trial drugs from Agios, grant support and advisory board fees paid to her institution, and provision of trial drugs from Bayer and Bristol-Myers Squibb, grant support paid to her institution from Sanofi and Debio, and fees for serving on a steering committee paid to her institution from TARGET Pharma Solutions.
- No other potential conflict of interest relevant to this article was reported

Randomization:  patients were randomly assigned, in a 2:1 ratio, to receive cabozantinib or placebo. Randomization was performed at a central location through an interactive response system with the use of permuted blocks, stratified according to etiologic factor (hepatitis B virus [HBV], with or without hepatitis C virus [HCV]; HCV without HBV; or other), geographic region (Asia or other), and evidence of extrahepatic spread of disease, macrovascular invasion, or both (yes or no).

Blinding:  study specified as "double-blind", but no detailed description on the blinding process

Dropout Rate/ITT-Analysis:  - 707 patients had undergone randomization: these patients made up the intention-to-treat population for efficacy analyses
- The safety population comprised 704 patients


Marrero, J. A. et al. Observational registry of sorafenib use in clinical practice across Child-Pugh subgroups: The GIDEON study. J Hepatol. 65. 1140-1147. 2016
Population Intervention - Comparison Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  3

Study type:  Prospective, observational, registry study (GIDEON).

Number of Patient:  A total of 3,371 patients were enrolled from 39 countries across five regions (USA, Europe, Japan, Latin America, and AsiaPacific). 2,708 patients had known Child-Pugh status at the start of sorafenib therapy; of these,
73% (n = 1968) had Child-Pugh A,
25% (n = 666) had Child-Pugh B, and
3% (n = 74) had Child-Pugh C.
15% (n = 494) of patients did not have all of the required information in order to be evaluable for Child-Pugh status (and were excluded).

Recruitung Phase:  January 2009 and the last patient follow-up occurred in April 2012.

Inclusion Criteria:  Patients diagnosed histologically, cytologically, or radiographically with HCC, with a life expectancy of more than 8 weeks.

Exclusion Criteria:  Exclusion criteria were based on the prescribing information for sorafenib.
Intervention:  Sorafenib - Child-Pugh subgroups

Comparison:  see Intervention
Primary:  Safety - Adverse events (AEs) were graded according to the National Cancer Institute Common Terminology Criteria for Adverse Events version 3.0. For evaluation of liver dysfunction, Child-Pugh score was calculated.

Secondary:  Survival

Results:  Sorafenib administrazion by Child-Pugh-Score:
Sorafenib initial dose of 800 mg recieved
- 72% of Child-Pugh A patients,
- 70 % of Child-Pugh B patients.

The median duration of treatment was longer in Child-Pugh A patients (17.6 weeks) compared with Child-Pugh B patients (9.9 weeks) and Child-Pugh C patients (5.6 weeks) and the proportion of patients discontinuing within 8 weeks was lower for Child-Pugh A patients (26%) compared with ChildPugh B patients (42%).

Adverse events:
AEs leading to permanent discontinuation were more common in Child-Pugh B (40%) and C (43%) patients than in Child-Pugh A patients (29%), although the incidences of drug related AEs leading to discontinuation were similar (21%, 15%,
and 17%, respectively).
AEs leading to discontinuation occurred most commonly during the first 4 weeks of treatment.

Survival:
Intent-to-treat population, median overall survival was:
Child-Pugh A patients (13.6 months)
ChildPugh B patients (5.2 months)
Child-Pugh C patients (2.6 months).

Author's Conclusion:  In summary, these findings from the final analysis of GIDEON confirm that sorafenib is used clinically across a broad spectrum of HCC patients, including those with liver dysfunction. In this cohort, the safety profile of sorafenib was generally consistent in Child-Pugh A and Child-Pugh B patients. Despite a similar safety profile, a higher rate of treatment discontinuation was observed in patients with Child-Pugh B status, who have a poorer general condition. The data show that Child-Pugh B patients are heterogeneous, and highlight that certain factors may be especially important in the assessment of patients with liver dysfunction, emphasizing the need for careful assessment when making treatment decisions in these patients. Together, the data indicate the use of the recommended sorafenib dose with subsequent monitoring as an appropriate treatment option in HCC patients with more advanced liver dysfunction.
Methodical Notes

Funding Sources:  The funders of the study (Bayer PLC and BTG PLC) had no role in the study design, data collection, analysis, interpretation, or writing of the report. Bayer PLC provided sorafenib and matching placebo and BTG provided DC Beads. The study was endorsed by Cancer Research UK and adopted into the NIHR trial portfolio. The study was sponsored by UCL and the chief investigator (TM) is employed by UCL. TM is part funded by the NIHR University College London Hospitals Biomedical Research Centre. MWJ is supported by NIHR Biomedical Research Unit in Gastrointestinal and Liver Diseases at Nottingham University Hospitals NHS Trust and University of Nottingham.

COI:  TM held the grant from Bayer PLC and BTG PLC, and reports personal fees from Bristol–Myers Squibb (BMS), Eisai, Ipsen, and Merck and Bayer. YTM reports personal fees from Bayer and Baxalta. PR reports grant support from Sanofi and personal fees from Bayer, Sirtex, Celgene, Roche, Sanofi, and Amgen. LW received support from Bayer to attend a conference. NH reports personal fees from BTG, Boston Scientific, and Terumo. TRJE reports support for trials and fees to the Institution from Bayer, BMS, Clovis, Karus Therapeutics, Baxalta,
Celgene, Eisai, GlaxoSmithKline, Otsuka, Roche, TC Biopharm, Immunova, Basilea, e-Therapeutics, Immunocore, Vertex, Verastem, Daiichi, and Merck. PC reports personal fees from Bayer. RH reports personal fees from BTG and Bayer. DC reports grant funding from Amgen, AstraZeneca, Bayer, Celgene, Medimmune, Merck Serono, Merrimack, and Sanofi. DHP reports grant personal fees from Bayer.

Randomization:  Randomisation was done by randomisation officers based at CRCTU. Patients were randomly assigned, on a 1:1 basis and in a
masked fashion, to the sorafenib group or placebo group based on a minimisation randomisation algorithm.
Randomisation was stratified by randomising centre and serum α-fetoprotein (AFP) concentration (<400 ng="" ml="" and="" 400="" ng="" ml="" br="">
Blinding:  Allocation concealment was achieved by the use of tablets identical in appearance and in numbered
bottles. Only the trial coordinator was unmasked to treatment allocation before patient progression during the study.

Dropout Rate/ITT-Analysis:  31 patients had fully withdrawn from the study. 108 discontinued treatment early but all except the 31 patients were accounted for.

Notes:  
Article from hand search
CEBM Level of Evidence: 2 (randomised controlled trial)
Limitations:
35% of study participants discontinued treatment early.
Meyer, Tim et al. Sorafenib in combination with transarterial chemoembolisation in patients with unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma (TACE 2): a randomised placebo-controlled, double-blind, phase 3 trial. The Lancet Gastroenterology & Hepatology. 2. 565-575. 2017
Population Intervention - Comparison Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  2

Study type:  Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study.

Number of Patient:  399 patients (in 20 hospitals in the UK) were screened, 86 excluded, remaining 313 were randomized.

Recruitung Phase:  Nov 4, 2010, and Dec 7, 2015.

Inclusion Criteria:  Histological or non-invasive diagnosis according to the American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases (AASLD) criteria, aged 18 years or older, at least one unidimensional lesion measurable according to Response Evaluation Criteria In Solid Tumors version 1.1 (RECIST v1.1), not being a candidate for surgical resection or liver transplant, Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group (ECOG) performance status of 1 or less, Child-Pugh A liver disease, haemoglobin of 9 g/L or higher, neutrophil count of at least 1·5 × 10⁹ cells per L, platelet count of at least 60 × 10⁹ platelets per L, bilirubin of no more than 50 µmol/L, aspartate aminotransferase (AST) or alanine aminotransferase (ALT) of 5 times upper limit of normal or less, alkaline phosphatase (ALP) of less than 4 times upper limit of normal, creatinine of 1·5 times upper limit of normal or less, international normalised ratio (INR) of 1·5 times upper limit of normal or less, and left ventricular ejection fraction of at least 45%.

Exclusion Criteria:  Extrahepatic metastasis, previous embolisation, systemic therapy or radiotherapy for hepatocellular carcinoma, any contraindication to hepatic embolisation, previous investigational therapy, major surgery or history of bleeding within 4 weeks of
trial entry, hepatic encephalopathy, occlusion of the hepatic artery or main portal vein, myocardial infarction within 6 months or prolonged QT/QTc of more than 450 ms.
Intervention:  Sorafenib + TACE (Oral sorafenib at a dose of 400 mg twice-daily or matching placebo was commenced within 24 h of randomisation and continued until disease progression. DEB-TACE was given 2–5 weeks post-randomisation using drug-eluting beads (DC Bead; BTG PLC, London, UK) loaded with doxorubicin 150 mg according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Administration was via the hepatic artery accessed via the femoral artery, and a superselective
approach was recommended.

Comparison:  Placebo + TACE
Primary:  Progression-free survival defined as the interval between randomisation and progression according to RECIST v1.117 or death due to any cause.

Secondary:  Overall survival measured from date of randomisation to death;
Time to progression, measured from date of randomisation to date of progression;
Response and disease control according to RECIST v1.1 guidelines;
QOL, scored according to the EORTC manuals; and
number of TACE procedures given within 12 months of randomisation.

Results:  Progression free-survival:
The formal interim futility analysis of progression-free analysis was done in July, 2015, and indicated an HR of 1·03 (95% CI 0·75–1·42, p=0·85), which led to early trial closure.
Median progression-free survival was 238·0 days (95% CI 221·0–281·0) in the sorafenib group versus 235·0 days (209·0–322·0) in the placebo group (HR 0·99 [95% CI 0·77–1·27], p=0·94.

Median overall survival was 631·0 days (95% CI 437·0–879·0) in the sorafenib group versus 598·0 days (500·0–697·0) in the placebo group (HR 0·91 [95% CI 0·67–1·24], p=0·57.

There was no evidence for a difference time to progression between the sorafenib group and the placebo group, with an HR of 0·88 (95% CI 0·67–1·17, p=0·38).

Sensitivity analysis: no evidence of a difference for all survival measures:
HR for progression-free survival was 1·01 (95% CI 0·78–1·30; p=0·94);
HR for overall survival was 0·99 (95% CI 0·73–1·35; p=0·96);
HR for time to progression was 0·87 (95% CI 0·66–1·16; p=0·35).

QoL: According to multilevel regression of QLQ-C30 scores over 360 days, both the mean social and role functioning scales were found to be
up to 6% lower (p=0·045 and p=0·050) for patients in the sorafenib group (notable changes were: mean diarrhoea score was up to 13% higher on average in the sorafenib group (p=0·0095) and mean appetite loss score was up to 10% higher (p=0·0018)).

Adverse events: At least one serious adverse event was reported in 65 (41%) of 157 patients in the sorafenib group and 50 (32%) of 156 patients in the placebo group. 181 serious adverse events were reported in total: 95 (52%) in the sorafenib group and 86 (48%) in the placebo group.

Author's Conclusion:  In summary, the TACE 2 trial contributes compelling evidence that the concurrent administration of sorafenib with DEB-TACE does not improve outcomes compared with DEB-TACE alone, and also provides valuable lessons to inform future trial development.
Methodical Notes

Funding Sources:  This study was partly supported by National Cancer Center,Korea (grant #1810031, #1510520). We thank Bayer Healthcarefor providing sorafenib and some financial support.

COI:  Employment or leadership position: none.
Consultant or advisory role: Joong-Won Park, BMS, Ono, Bayer, Eisai, Midatech, Roche, Cue; Yoon Jun Kim, Gilead, Bayer, Ono, AbbVie
Seung Woon Paik, BMS, Ono, Bayer, Eisai
Han Chu Lee, BMS, Ono, Bayer, Silla-jen
Jaeyoun Cheong, Bukwang.
Stock Ownership: none.
Honoraria: Joong-Won Park, Eisai, Bayer, Ono;
Yoon Jun Kim, Bayer, Gilead.
Research Funding: Yoon Jun Kim, BTG, Bayer, Ono, Astra-Zeneca, Roche, LG, BMS. Expert Testimony: None.
Patents, Roy-alties, and Licenses: none.
Other Remunerations: none.


Randomization:  block randomization method (block sizes 2 or 4).

Blinding:  no blinding reported

Dropout Rate/ITT-Analysis:  - A total of 17 patients from Arm C and 2 from Arm S who did not receive cTACE or sorafenib were excluded from the full analysis set
- outcomes were analyzed by the intention-to-treat principle.

 
Daniele, B. et al. Impact of sorafenib dosing on outcome from the European patient subset of the GIDEON study. Future Oncol. 11. 2553-62. 2015
Evidence level Methodical Notes Patient characteristics Interventions
Evidence level:  3

Study type:  prospective, open-label, noninterventional study (sub-analysis of European population)
Funding sources:  The study was supported and funded by Bayer HealthCare Pharmaceuticals and Onyx Pharmaceuticals, an Amgen subsidiary.

Conflict of Interests:  - B. Daniele received consultancy fees from Bayer, lectureship fees from Bayer, Daiichi Sankyo and Novartis, and is a board member of Bayer and Daiichi Sankyo.
- A Croitoru received consultancy and lectureship fees, and research support from Bayer, Roche, Merck, Novartis, Ipsen and Lilly.
- C Papandreou received honoraria from, and holds an advisory role with Bayer.
- JP Bronowicki received consultancy and educational fees from Bayer, and a research grant from Bayer was received by the CHU de Nancy.
- P Mathurin received speaking fees from Roche, MSD, Gilead Sciences, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Jansenn-Cilag and Bayer, and is an investigator for Roche, Schering-Plough, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Gilead Sciences, Janssen-Cilag, Boeringher, Novartis and Bayer, is also a member of the French boards of experts in Hepatology for Roche, MSD, Gilead Sciences, Boeringher, Bayer and Bristol-Myers Squibb and holds a consultancy role with Roche, Schering-Plough, MSD, Abbott, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Gilead Sciences, Janssen-Cilag, Boeringher, Novartis and Bayer.
- F Serejo declared no conflicts of interest.
- P Stål received consultancy and lectureship fees from Bayer.
- J Turnes received consultancy and lectureship fees from Bayer.
- V Ratziu holds an advisory role with Bayer.
- G Bodoky received honoraria from Bayer, Roche, Pfizer, Janssen, Novartis, Lilly and Taiho and holds an advisory role with Bayer, Roche, Novartis, Pfizer and Lilly.
- The authors have no other relevant affiliations or financial involvement with any organization or entity with a financial interest in or financial conflict with the subject matter or materials discussed in the manuscript apart from those disclosed.

Randomization:  none

Blinding:  none

Dropout rates:  - intent-to-treat population comprised all patients who entered the study and received at least one dose of sorafenib
Total no. patients:  - A total of 3371 patients from 39 countries were enrolled
- The European subset comprised 1113 patients from 180 sites in 22 countries.

Recruiting Phase:  between January 2009 and November 2010

Inclusion criteria:  patients
- with histologically/cytologically documented or radio-graphically confirmed unresectable HCC,
- with a life expectancy of at least 8 weeks,
- who had not undergone previous sorafenib therapy,
- were candidates for systemic therapy,
- in whom the decision to treat with sorafenib had been made,
- must have signed an informed consent form.

Exclusion criteria:  Exclusion criteria followed the approved local product information.
Interventions:  sorafenib 400 mg/day


Comparison:  nonesorafenib 800 mg/day
Notes: evidence-level 3: prospective, open-label, non-interventional study

Author's conclusion:  In summary, the AE profiles are comparable across the dosing groups. The data suggest that patients receiving the recommended dose of 800 mg/day sorafenib can continue on treatment longer with a better survival outcome than those receiving 400 mg/day. It is important to acknowledge, however, that a greater percentage of the patients who started on the lower dose (n = 171) were older (median age: 69 vs 66 years) and had a worse ECOG performance status (63.2 vs 49.1% were performance status 1–3) and Child-Pugh disease status (25.7 vs 18.8% were status B). Nonetheless, it is not unreasonable to suggest, based on the available data, that the current recommended dose of 800 mg/day should be the starting dose for all patients and reduced on an individual basis depending on the appearance and severity of any AEs observed.
Outcome Measures/results Primary  safety

Secondary  overall survival (OS)
time to progression (TTP)
Results:  Sorafenib dosing
- 171 patients recieved 400 mg/d, 917 patients recieved 800 mg/d sorafenib, 25 patients received an alternative dose of sorafenib
- Patients who received 800 mg/day sorafenib experienced fewer dose interruptions (23.7 vs 26.9%), dose modifications (43.3 vs 57.9%), dose increases (12.1 vs 39.8%), more dose reductions (39.1 vs 25.7%)
- median duration of treatment and days on the study drug were greater for the 800 mg/day group (18.0 vs 13.0 weeks)
safety
- higher rate of AEs (all grades) in the 400 mg/day patient group (95.9 vs 87.8%), plus higher rates of drug-related AEs (73.7 vs 68.8%) and serious AEs (57.3 vs 44.5%)
- most common AEs (all grades, drug-related and drug-related grade 3/4) were diarrhea, fatigue and hand–foot skin reaction (HFSR) ( Tab le 5).
- Overall, 2.2% of the population died as a result of drug-related AEs. At the time of analysis, 60% of patients were dead in the 400 mg/day group and 52% in the 800 mg/day group.
Overall survival
- Patients in the 800 mg/day group appeared to have a longer median OS (12.1 months; 95% CI: 10.5–13.8) than those in the 400 mg/day group (9.4 months; 95% CI: 6.3–12.6)
time to progression (TTP)
- Median TTP was similar for both patient groups (6.5 vs 6.2 months).

Ganten, T. M. et al. Sorafenib in Patients with Hepatocellular Carcinoma-Results of the Observational INSIGHT Study. Clin Cancer Res. 23. 5720-5728. 2017
Evidence level Methodical Notes Patient characteristics Interventions
Evidence level:  3

Study type:  observational cohort study, noninterventional, prospective, multicenter.
Funding sources:  "This study was supported by Bayer Vital GmbH. The costs of publication of this article were defrayed in part by the payment of page charges. This article must therefore be hereby marked advertisement in accordance with 18 U.S.C. Section 1734 solely to indicate this fact."

Conflict of Interests:  "T.M. Ganten and E. Schott report receiving speakers bureau honoraria from and are consultant/advisory board members for Bayer. P.R. Galle reports receiving speakers bureau honoraria from Bayer and is a consultant/ advisory board member for Bayer, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Lilly, MSD, Sillajen, and Sirtex. R. Koschny reports receiving commercial research support from Bayer. No potential conflicts of interest were disclosed by the other authors."

Randomization:  -

Blinding:  -

Dropout rates:  4 lost to follow up.
Total no. patients:  788

Recruiting Phase:  2008-2014

Inclusion criteria:  Patients with HCC who were diagnosed according to the American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases (AASLD) guidelines 2005, and the subsequent 2011
update, were aged 18 years or older, and were candidates for systemic therapy with sorafenib.

Exclusion criteria:  -
Interventions:  Sorafenib was administered orally with the dose and duration chosen at the discretion of the treating physician, complying with daily. Although dosing was generally 800mg some patients were also started on a lower daily dose of 200, 400, or 600 mg. The observation period for each patient was the time between the initial visit, where sorafenib therapy was commenced, and the time point of disease progression (according to RECIST criteria), death or unacceptable AEs leading to sorafenib discontinuation.


Comparison:  -
Notes: Article from hand search
Evidence level 3. Non-randomized controlled cohort

Author's conclusion:  "Sorafenib treatment was shown to be effective in a real-life setting, in agreement with previously reported clinical trial data. Disease stage (BCLC classification), liver function (Child–Pugh stadium), and performance status (ECOG score) correlated with longer overall survival and time to progression. The therapy was found to have an acceptable safety profile, with predominantly
mild to moderate side effects. The data obtained in this observational study agree well with those of previously reported clinical trials, validating the results in a real-life setting."
Outcome Measures/results Primary  Overall survival, time to progression

Secondary  -
Results:  Population: The end of the study observation period was a result of disease progression for 284 patients (36.0%), death for 212 patients (26.9%), and unacceptable AEs leading to treatment discontinuation in 122 patients (15.5%).The mean age of the efficacy set was 66.7 years (±9.6), and the mean body mass index was 26.9 kg/m2 (±4.6); 14.6% were female.
The majority of patients had Child–Pugh A liver cirrhosis (56.7%), predominantly due to chronic alcohol abuse (43.5%) or hepatitis B (11.6%) or C (13.9%). Most tumors were at Barcelona Clinic Liver Cancer (BCLC) stage C (50.1%), with 53.2% limited to the liver. A small proportion of patients were treated with sorafenib even though it was not indicated in the EASL guidelines.
Results: Median overall survival for the total population was 15.1 months, while time to progression was 4.2 months.
Median overall survival for patients at BCLC stage A was 29.2 months. Median overall survival decreased to 19.6, 13.6, and 3.1 months for BCLC stages B, C, and D, respectively (P < 0.0001). Time to progression also significantly differed between the different BCLC stages (P = 0.0001).
For patients with HCC and Child–Pugh A liver cirrhosis (n = 443), the median overall survival was 17.6 months. Overall survival for patients with Child-Pugh B (n = 182) and C (n = 26) significantly decreased, at 8.1 and 5.6 months,
respectively (P < 0.0001). Time to progression was also dependent on Child–Pugh status, with values of 5.3, 3.3, and 2.5 months noted for patients with Child–Pugh A, B, and C, respectively (P < 0.0001)
HCC Abou-Alfa 2018 Cabozantinib

Abou-Alfa, G. K. et al. Cabozantinib in Patients with Advanced and Progressing Hepatocellular Carcinoma. N Engl J Med. 379. 54-63. 2018
Population Intervention - Comparison Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  2

Study type:  randomized, double-blind, phase 3 trial

Number of Patient:  707 patients (470 patients had been assigned to receive cabozantinib and 237 to receive placebo)

Recruitung Phase:  September 2013 through September 2017 (cut off date for this second interim analysis June 01, 2017)

Inclusion Criteria:  - 18 years of age or older,
- received a pathological diagnosis of hepato-cellular carcinoma that was not amenable to curative treatment
- Child–Pugh class A liver function
- had received previous treatment with sorafenib and had disease progression after at least one systemic treatment for hepatocellular carcinoma
- Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group (ECOG) performance-status score of 0 or 1
- adequate hematologic measures
- adequate renal function.

Exclusion Criteria:  - patients could not have had previous treatment with cabozantinib and could not have uncontrolled clinically significant illness.
Intervention:  60mg tablet of cabozantinib or a matched placebo tablet to be taken orally once per day as long as they had clinical benefit or until unacceptable toxic effects.

Comparison:  matched placebo
Primary:  - overall survival (defined as the time from randomization to death from any cause)

Secondary:  - progression-free survival (defined as the time from randomization to radiographic progression or death from any cause, whichever occurred first)
- objective response rate (percentage of patients with a confirmed complete or partial response)
- adverse events


Results:  overall survival
- The median overall survival was 10.2 months (95% confidence interval [CI], 9.1 to 12.0) in the cabozantinib group and 8.0 months (95% CI, 6.8 to 9.4) in the placebo group
- stratified hazard ratio for death was 0.76 (95% CI, 0.63 to 0.92; p=0.005)
- results for overall survival across subgroups were more variable
progression-free survival
- median progression-free survival was 5.2 months (95% CI, 4.0 to 5.5) in the cabozantinib group and 1.9 months (95% CI, 1.9 to 1.9) in the placebo group.
- stratified hazard ratio for disease progression or death was 0.44 (95% CI, 0.36 to 0.52; P<0.001
- Subgroup analyses of PFS consistently favored cabozantinib
objective response rate
- The objective response rate was 4% (18 partial responses among 470 patients) in the cabozantinib group and less than 1% (1 partial response among 237 patients) in the placebo group (P=0.009)
- Disease control (defined as a partial response or stable disease) was achieved in 64% of the patients (300 patients) in the cabozantinib group, as compared with 33% (79 patients) in the placebo group.
adverse events
- rate of discontinuation due to adverse events (related to the trial regimen) was 16% (76 patients) in the cabozantinib group and 3% (7 patients) in the placebo group.
- Grade 3 or 4 adverse events occurred in 68% of patients in the cabozantinib group and in 36% in the placebo group.
- The most common high-grade events were palmar–plantar erythro-dysesthesia (17% with cabozantinib vs. 0% with placebo), hypertension (16% vs. 2%), increased aspartate aminotransferase level (12% vs. 7%), fatigue (10% vs. 4%) and diarrhea (10% vs. 2%)

Author's Conclusion:  In conclusion, treatment with cabozantinib, a tyrosine kinase inhibitor that targets MET, VEGF receptors, and AXL, resulted in longer overall survival and progression-free survival than placebo in patients with previously treated advanced hepatocellular carcinoma. Adverse events were consistent with the known safety profile of cabozantinib, and the rate of high-grade adverse events in the cabozantinib group was approximately twice that observed in the placebo group.
Methodical Notes

Funding Sources:  The funder (Bayer) provided the study drug and worked with the principal investigator (JB) and the study steering committee to design the study. Data collection and interpretation and preparation of this report, were done by the investigators and the funder. Statistical analyses were performed by the funder. All authors reviewed this report and approved the submission for publication, had full access to the data, and vouch for the completeness and accuracy of the data and adherence of the study to the protocol. The funder funded writing assistance.

COI:  - JB has received grants and personal fees from Bayer; consultancy and advisory fees from Bayer and Novartis; and consultancy fees from Gilead, AbbVie, Kowa, BTG, ArQule, Terumo, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Boehringer Ingelheim, OSI, Roche, Eisai, Sirtex, and Onxeo.
- PM has received consultancy fees from Bayer.
- OY has received grants from Gilead Sciences, MSD, Bayer, Mitsubishi Tanabe Pharma, and Bristol-Myers Squibb.
- OR has received personal fees from Transgene and Bristol-Myers Squibb.
- VB has received personal fees from Bayer, Boehringer Ingelheim, Pfizer, MSD, and Roche; and non-financial support from Boehringer Ingelheim, Pfizer, and MSD.
- RG has received advisory fees from Bayer France.
- PJR has received personal fees from Bayer, Celgene, Roche, Merck, and Sirtex; advisory fees from Bayer, Baxalta, Amgen, and Sanofi ; speaker fees from Celgene; and support for attending meetings from Bayer, Celgene, and Merck.
- J-PB has received grants from Bayer during the conduct of the study and lecturing and consultancy fees from Bayer.
- IO-H has received grants and personal fees from Bayer; personal fees from Gilead, Intercept, Daiichi Sankyo, AbbVie, and Boehringer Ingelheim; grants from Lilly; and non-financial support from Gilead, MSD, and AbbVie.
- MK has received grants from Chugai, Otsuka, Takeda, Taiho, Sumitomo Dainippon, Daiichi Sankyo, MSD, Eisai, Bayer, and AbbVie; lecturing fees from Bayer, Eisai, MSD, and Ajinomoto; and advisory and consultancy fees from Bayer, Eisai, Kowa, MSD, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Chugai, and Taiho.
- A-LC has received consultancy fees from Novartis, Eisai, MSD, Bayer, Ono Pharmaceuticals, Bristol-Myers Squibb, and Merck Serono.
- JML has received grants from Bayer, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Blueprint Medicines, and Boehringer Ingelheim; and consultancy fees from Bayer, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Blueprint Medicines, Boehringer Ingelheim, Lilly Pharmaceuticals, Celsion, Biocompatibles, and Novartis.
- RSF has received grants, consultancy fees, and travel support from Bayer, Pfizer, Novartis, and Bristol-Myers Squibb.
- M-AL is an employee of Bayer.
- AB is an employee of Bayer.
- GMe is an employee of Bayer and owns stock in Bayer.
- GH has received a grant and advisory board and speaker fees from Bayer.
- SQ, AG, Y-HH, GB, MP, GMa, and TS declare no competing interests.

Randomization:  Patients were randomly assigned (2:1) to regorafenib or placebo using a computer-generated randomisation list prepared by the funder. Randomisation was stratified by geographical region (Asia vs rest of world), macrovascular invasion (yes vs no), extrahepatic disease (yes vs no), α-fetoprotein concentration (<400 ng="" ml="" vs="" 400="" ng="" ml="" and="" eastern="" cooperative="" oncology="" group="" ecog="" performance="" status="" 0="" vs="" 1="" the="" proportion="" of="" patients="" recruited="" from="" asia="" was="" limited="" to="" 40="" the="" randomisation="" number="" for="" each="" patient="" was="" assigned="" based="" on="" information="" obtained="" from="" the="" interactive="" voice-response="" system="" br="">
Blinding:  - Investigators, patients and the funder were masked to treatment assignment.
- Tablets with identical appearance were used for regorafenib and placebo.
- Investigators were blinded to study treatment for assessment of whether a death was considered related to study drug.


Dropout Rate/ITT-Analysis:  - primary and secondary outcomes analysed by ITT
- for safety analysis, only patients who started treatment were included and comprise the safety analysis population (567 patients (99%): 374 in the regorafenib group and 193 in the placebo group)
HCC Bruix 2017 Regorafenib RESORCE
Bruix, J. et al. Regorafenib for patients with hepatocellular carcinoma who progressed on sorafenib treatment (RESORCE): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trial. Lancet. 389. 56-66. 2017
Population Intervention - Comparison Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  2

Study type:  randomized, controlled, double-blind study

Number of Patient:  573 were enrolled and randomised (379 to regorafenib and 194 to placebo; population for efficacy analyses). 216 patients (38%) were from Asia.

Recruitung Phase:  Between May 14, 2013, and Dec 31, 2015

Inclusion Criteria:  - adults with HCC confirmed by pathological assessment or non-invasive assessment according to the American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases criteria for patients with confirmed cirrhosis
- had to have at least one measurable lesion by modified RECIST and RECIST v1.1
- Patients were BCLC stage B or C
- could not benefit from resection, local ablation, or chemoembolisation,
- must have had documented radiological progression during sorafenib treatment as defined in a study-specific radiology charter
- must have tolerated sorafenib (≥400 mg daily for at least 20 of the 28 days before discontinuation) and received their last sorafenib dose within 10 weeks of randomisation.
- were required to have Child-Pugh A liver function

Exclusion Criteria:  patients were excluded if they had received any other previous systemic treatment for HCC or if they discontinued sorafenib for toxicity
Intervention:  160 mg regorafenib (four 40 mg tablets) orally or matching placebo once daily for the first 3 weeks of each 4-week cycle

Comparison:  matching placebo
Primary:  overall survival (time from randomisation to death due to any cause), analysed by intention to treat (ITT).

Secondary:  - progression-free survival (randomisation to radiological or clinical disease progression or death; by ITT),
- time to progression (randomisation to radiological or clinical disease progression; by ITT),
- objective response rate (patients with complete or partial response), and disease control rate (patients with complete response, partial response, or stable disease maintained for ≥6 weeks), assessed by investigators using mRECIST and RECIST 1.1

Results:  overall survival
- Median overall survival was 10.6 months (95% CI 9.1–12.1) with regorafenib and 7.8 months (6.3–8.8) with placebo (HR 0.63 [95% CI 0.50–0.79]; one-sided p<0·0001)
- improvement in overall survival with regorafenib was maintained in all preplanned subgroup analyses
secondary outcomes
- Median progression-free survival by mRECIST was 3.1 months (95% CI 2.8–4.2) with regorafenib and 1.5 months (1.4–1.6) with placebo
- Median time to progression by mRECIST was 3.2 months (95% CI 2.9–4.2) with regorafenib and 1.5 months (1.4–1.6) with placebo.
- Predefined subgroup analysis for progression-free survival and time to progression also showed a consistent benefit. The HRs for progression-free survival and time to progression assessed by RECIST 1.1 were comparable
- Of patients who started treatment, 309 (83%) receiving regorafenib and 183 (95%) receiving placebo discontinued study treatment: The most common reason for discontinuation was disease progression (226 [60%] in the regorafenib group and 162 [84%] in the placebo group)
- Two patients (1% [95% CI<1–2]) in the regorafenib group versus no patients in the placebo group had a complete response and 38 patients (10% [7–14]) in the regorafenib group versus eight patients (4% [2–8]) in the placebo group had a partial response
- 40 (11%) of 379 patients in the regorafenib group versus eight (4%) of 194 patients in the placebo group achieved an objective response (p=0.0047)
- 247 (65%) of 379 patients in the regorafenib group versus 70 (36%) of 194 patients in the placebo group achieved disease control (p<0.0001)
adverse events
- most common clinically relevant grade 3 or 4 treatment-emergent events were hypertension (57 patients [15%] in the regorafenib group vs nine patients [5%] in the placebo group), hand–foot skin reaction (47 patients [13%] vs one [1%]), fatigue (34 patients [9%] vs nine patients [5%]), and diarrhoea (12 patients [3%] vs no patients).
- Of the 88 deaths (grade 5 adverse events) reported during the study (50 patients [13%] assigned to regorafenib and 38 [20%] assigned to placebo), seven (2%) were considered by the investigator to be related to study drug in the regorafenib group and two (1%) in the placebo group, including two patients (1%) with hepatic failure in the placebo group.

Author's Conclusion:  The results of this study represent a significant advance in addressing an unmet need in the treatment of HCC. All previous second-line trials of novel agents have failed; thus no effective systemic therapies after progression on sorafenib are currently available. These data underscore that prolonging exposure to multikinase inhibitors such as the sequence of sorafenib and regorafenib in conjunction with proper management of adverse events can lead to an extension in survival. In conclusion, this study met its primary endpoint showing that regorafenib improves overall survival in patients with HCC who had disease progression during first-line treatment with sorafenib.
Methodical Notes

Funding Sources:  Bayer HealthCare Pharmaceuticals and Onyx Pharmaceuticals. The funder was responsible for the study design and data
collection and analysed and interpreted data, in collaboration with all authors. The funder also had input into the writing of the manuscript. JB and JML had full access to all of the study data, and all authors had access upon request. The corresponding author had access to
the study data and had the final responsibility to submit the manuscript for publication.

COI:  G-YC reports grants from Bayer outside the submitted work. GM reports employment and stock ownership from Bayer HealthCare during the conduct of the study. HCL reports personal fees from Bayer outside the submitted work. JB reports personal fees from Daichi, AbbVie, Arquile, Bayer, Biocompatibles, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Novartis, Gilead, Terumo, Syrtex, and Roche outside the submitted work. JML reports personal fees from Bayer HealthCare, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Lilly, GSK, Nanostring, Biosphere Medical, Boehringer Ingelheim, Blueprint Medicines, and Celsion outside the submitted work. LB reports personal fees from Bayer, Bristol-Myers Squibb, MSD, Bracco, and Syrtex outside the submitted work. FS reports employment by Bayer HealthCare during the conduct of this study. M-ALB reports employment by Bayer HealthCare during the conduct of this study. WYT reports grants from Samil Pharm and personal fees from Gilead Sciences Korea outside the submitted work. MM reports personal fees from Bayer HealthCare outside the submitted work. VM reports personal fees from BTG and Bayer HealthCare outside the submitted work. TS, JC, K-HH, MK, SR, TT, RTP, JY, and KSL declare no competing interests.

Randomization:  At randomisation, patients were stratified according to curative treatment (surgical resection vs local ablation), geographical region (Americas vs Europe vs AsiaPacifi c), Child-Pugh status (Child-Pugh A5 or A6 vs Child-Pugh B7), and risk of tumour recurrence (high vs intermediate). Randomisation was done in a parallel, stratified fashion using permuted blocks (block size of four) via a
computer-generated system. Sequences were generated by an internal randomisation group and the list loaded into an interactive voice-response system (IVRS).

Blinding:  The study was double-blinded. Sorafenib and placebo tablets were identical in appearance to ensure treatment was masked.
Allocation of treatment was by an IVRS, which assigned each patient a treatment based on a unique bottle or drug number.

Dropout Rate/ITT-Analysis:  The planned sample size for the study was 1100 patients and was calculated based on the primary endpoint. Initially, the study required 611 events based on 90% power to detect a 30% increase in RFS. Because of a higher than expected number of patients discontinuing
treatment without recurrence of HCC, this was amended during the study to 457 events to achieve 80% power, assuming a 1:1 randomisation ratio and onesided alpha of 0·025. The assumed RFS in the placebo group was 21 months, and the expected median overall
survival was 60 months based on the scientifi c literature and taking into account the population to be enrolled in this study.
HCC Ramucirumab (Zhu 2015 REACH, Zhu 2019 REACH-2)

Zhu, A. X. et al. Ramucirumab versus placebo as second-line treatment in patients with advanced hepatocellular carcinoma following first-line therapy with sorafenib (REACH): a randomised, double-blind, multicentre, phase 3 trial. Lancet Oncol. 16. 859-70. 2015
Population Intervention - Comparison Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  2

Study type:  Randomized, controlled, double-blind, phase 3 study

Number of Patient:  565 patients were enrolled, of whom 283 were assigned to ramucirumab and 282 were assigned to placebo.

Recruitung Phase:  Between Nov 4, 2010, and April 18, 2013

Inclusion Criteria:  - aged 18 years or older,
- had a diagnosis of hepatocellular carcinoma and Barcelona Clinic Liver Cancer stage C or stage B that was refractory or not amenable to locoregional therapy, and had Child-Pugh A liver disease.
- Diagnosis of hepatocellular carcinoma was based on histopathological findings from tumour tissue, or in the absence of histological confirmation, patients had clinical findings consistent with a diagnosis of liver cirrhosis and a liver mass measuring at least 2 cm with characteristic vascularisation seen on either triphasic CT scan or MRI with gadolinium undertaken and reviewed locally.
- Patients were previously treated with and discontinued sorafenib at least 14 days before randomisation and had radiographically documented disease progression during sorafenib therapy or after discontinuation of sorafenib therapy.
-Patients were required to have an Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group performance status 0 or 1 and adequate haematological and biochemical parameters

Exclusion Criteria:  - major surgery or hepatic locoregional therapy within 28 days before randomisation,
- previous systemic therapy with VEGF or VEGFR inhibitors other than sorafenib,
- ongoing therapeutic anticoagulation or antiplatelet therapy,
- history of or current hepatic encephalopathy or current clinically meaningful ascites, - arterial thrombotic event within 6 months before randomisation,
- high bleeding risk from oesophageal or gastric varices, and uncontrolled arterial hypertension.
- In the original protocol, patients with Child-Pugh B disease were eligible but had to be excluded from future enrollment during the study due to an imbalance between treatment groups of adverse liver events
Intervention:  ramucirumab 8 mg/kg (ImClone Systems Corporation, Branchburg, NJ, USA) intravenously over 1h every 2 weeks until disease progression, unacceptable toxicity or withdrawal of consent.
- Up to two reductions to the dose of ramucirumab or placebo (to 6 mg/kg every other week and subsequently to 5 mg/kg every other week) were allowed

Comparison:  placebo
Primary:  overall survival

Secondary:  progression-free survival
time to tumour progression
response (according to RECIST)
objective response (complete response and partial response)
disease control (complete response, partial response and stable disease)
adverse events

Results:  overall survival
- Median overall survival in the ramucirumab group was 9.2 months (95% CI 8.1–10.6) compared with 7.6 months (6.0–9.3) in the placebo group (HR 0.87 [95% CI 0.72–1.05]; p=0.14)
- In the prespecified subgroup of patients with a baseline α-fetoprotein concentration of 400 ng/mL or greater, median overall survival was 7.8 months (95% CI 5.8–9.3) for the ramucirumab group versus 4.2 months (3.7–4.8) for the placebo group
-
progression-free survival
- Median progression-free survival was 2.8 months (95% CI 2.7–3.9) in the ramucirumab group versus 2.1 months (1.6–2.7) in the placebo group (HR 0.63 [95% CI 0.52–0.75]; p<0.0001)
time to tumour progression
- Median time to tumour progression in the ramucirumab group was 3.5 months (95% CI 2.8–4.5) versus 2.6 months (1.6–2.8) in the placebo group (HR 0.59 [95% CI 0.49–0.72]; p<0·0001)
objective response
- An objective response was noted in 20 patients (7%; 95% CI 4.6–10.7) in the ramucirumab group compared with two patients (<1%; 0.2–2.5) in the placebo group (p<0.0001).
disease control
- 159 patients (56%; 95% CI 50.4–61.8)achieved disease control in the ramucirumab group compared with 129 patients (46%; 40.0–51.6) in the placebo group (p=0.011).
adverse events
- Grade 3 or greater adverse events occurring in 5% or more of patients in either treatment group were ascites (13 [5%] of 277 ramucirumab-patients vs 11 [4%] of 276 placebo-patients), hypertension (34 [12%] vs 10 [4%]), asthenia (14 [5%] vs 5 [2%]), malignant neoplasm progression (18 [6%] vs 11 [4%]), increased aspartate aminotransferase concentration (15 [5%] vs 23 [8%]), thrombocytopenia (13 [5%] vs 1 [<1%]), hyperbilirubinaemia (three [1%] vs 13 [5%]) and increased blood bilirubin (5 [2%] vs 14 [5%]).
- most frequently reported (≥1%) treatment-emergent serious adverse event of any grade or grade 3 or more was malignant neoplasm progression.

Author's Conclusion:  Second-line treatment of advanced hepatocellular carcinoma has been an area of high unmet need, and so far no drugs have clearly shown a survival benefit after sorafenib. Although we failed to demonstrate an improvement in overall survival with the use of ramucirumab after first-line sorafenib, the effects of the drug in patients with elevated baseline α-fetoprotein concentrations of 400 ng/mL may warrant further investigation.
Methodical Notes

Funding Sources:  - This study was funded by Eli Lilly.
- The study funder had roles in study design of REACH and REACH-2, and was involved in data collection, analysis, and interpretation, and writing of the report. The corresponding author had full access to all study data and had final responsibility for the decision to submit for publication


COI:  - AXZ reports grants from Bayer, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Eli Lilly, Merck, and Novartis, and consultancy and advisory roles for AstraZeneca, Bayer, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Eisai, Eli Lilly, Exelsix, Merck, Novartis, and Sanofi.
- Y-KK reports personal fees from Ono, BMS, Eli Lilly, Roche, Daehwa, and Taiho.
- RSF reports consultancy for AstraZeneca, Bayer, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Eli Lilly, Pfizer, Merck, Novartis, Roche, and Genentech.
- PRG reports advisory board and lecture fees from Bayer, Bristol-Myers Squibb, MSD, Merck, Sirtex, AstraZeneca, Sillajen, and Eli Lilly.
- JML reports grants from Bayer Healthcare, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Eisai, Ipsen, Blueprint, and Incyte, and personal fees from Eli Lilly, Bayer Healthcare, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Eisai, Blueprint, Incyte, Celsion, Exelixis, Glycotest, Ipsen, Merck, Navigant, Leerink Swann, Midatech, Fortress Biotech, Spring Bank Pharmaceuticals, and Nucleix.
- IO reports personal fees from Merk Serono and Taiho.
- PM reports grant from Onxeo, and has served on advisory boards for Bayer, Ipsen, Exelixis, and Onxeo.
- BD reports personal fees from Bayer, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Ipsen, Eisai, Eli Lilly, MSD, and Merck, and non-financial support from Bayer and Bristol-Myers Squibb.
- J-BH reports personal fees from Gilead, Abbvie, Intercept, and Bayer.
- TO reports grants and personal fees from Eli Lilly, Boehringer Ingelheim, Dainippon Simitomo, Pfizer, Bayer Yakuhin, Chugai, Yakuruto Honsha, Ono, Eisai, AstraZeneca, Merck Serono, Baxter, Nano Carrier, Zeria, and Nobelpharma, grants from OncoTherapy Science, Kyowa Hakko Kirin, Shizuoka Industry, and GlaxoSmith Kline, and personal fees from Bristol-Myers Squibb, Nipponchemofa, EA Pharma, Fujifilm RI, Astellas, Nippon Kayaku, Daiichi Sankyo, Celgene, MSD, and Teijin Pharma.
- YH and PBA are employees of, shareholders in, and have patents pending with, Eli Lilly.
- MK reports grants from Chugai, Otsuka, Takeda, Taiho, Sumitomo Dainippon, Daiichi Sankyo, MSD, Eisai, Bayer, Abbvie, Medico’s Hirata, Astellas, and Bristol-Myers Squibb, and has served on advisory boards for Bayer, Eisai, MSD, Ajinomoto, Kowa, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Chugai, Taiho, Eisai, and Ono.
- All other authors declare no competing interests.

Randomization:  - Investigators enrolled patients, who were subsequently randomly allocated (2:1) to treatment with ramucirumab or placebo via an interactive web-response system with a computer-generated random sequence.
- Randomisation was stratified by geographical region (region 1 [Americas, Europe, Australia, Israel] vs region 2 [Asia, excluding Japan] vs region 3 [ Japan]), macrovascular invasion (yes vs no), and ECOG performance status (0 vs 1).


Blinding:  - Patients, investigators and the sponsor were masked to treatment assignment
- Ramucirumab was visibly indistinguishable from placebo

Dropout Rate/ITT-Analysis:  all efficacy outcomes were assessed in the intention-to-treat population.

Notes:  
Article from hand search
- evidence level 2: randomized controlled trial

Zhu, Andrew X. et al. Ramucirumab after sorafenib in patients with advanced hepatocellular carcinoma and increased ?-fetoprotein concentrations (REACH-2): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trial. The Lancet Oncology. 20. 282-296. 2019
Population Intervention - Comparison Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  2

Study type:  randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, phase 3 trial

Number of Patient:  292 patients were randomly assigned, 197 to the ramucirumab group and 95 to the placebo group.

Recruitung Phase:  Between July 26, 2015 and Aug 30, 2017

Inclusion Criteria:  - diagnosis of hepatocellular carcinoma
- Barcelona Clinic Liver Cancer (BCLC) stage B or C disease that was refractory or not amenable to locoregional therapy,
- Child-Pugh class A liver disease,
- Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group (ECOG) performance status of 0 or 1,
- serum α-fetoprotein concentrations of 400 ng/mL or higher (as measured by a local laboratory),
- adequate haematological and biochemical parameters,
- aged 18 years or older,
- Sorafenib was the only previous systemic treatment for hepato-cellular carcinoma that was allowed, and it had to have been discontinued at least 14 days before randomisation because of intolerance or disease progression,
- at least one measurable lesion as per the Response Evaluation Criteria in Solid Tumors (RECIST; version 1.1) and adequate organ function

Exclusion Criteria:  - hepatic locoregional therapy after sorafenib,
- major surgery in the 28 days before randomisation,
- a history of or current hepatic encephalopathy,
- previous liver transplantation,
- oeso-phageal or gastric varices requiring endoscopic treatment,
- uncontrolled arterial hypertension.
- clinically meaningful ascites (ie, worse than grade 1 on the US National Cancer Institute’s Common Terminology Criteria for Adverse Events [CTCAE; version 4.0]) resulting from cirrhosis
Intervention:  intravenous ramucirumab (8 mg/kg) or placebo for 1h every 14 days until disease progression, unacceptable toxicity, or withdrawal of consent.

Comparison:  placebo
Primary:  overall survival

Secondary:  progression-free survival
objective response
disease-related symptoms

Results:  basics
- 281 patients were off treatment, and 11 patients in the ramucirumab group were still receiving therapy at day of cut-off (March 15, 2018).
- 206 (71%) of 292 had disease progression and 221 (76%) had died. Median duration of follow-up for overall survival was 7.6 months (IQR 4.0–12.5)
overall survival
- Median overall survival was significantly improved in the ramucirumab group compared with the placebo group (8.5 months [95% CI 7.0–10.6] vs 7.3 months [5.4–9.1]; HR 0.710 [95% CI 0.531–0.949]; p=0·0199)
progression-free survival
- Median progression-free survival was significantly longer in the ramucirumab group than the placebo group (2.8 months [95% CI 2.8–4.1] vs 1.6 months [1.5–2.7]; HR 0.452 [95% CI 0.339–0.603]; p<0.0001)
objective response
- the proportion of patients with an objective response did not differ between groups (nine [5%] vs one [1%]; p=0.1697).
- The proportion of patients with disease control (ie, an objective response or stable disease) was significantly higher in the ramucirumab group than in the placebo group (118 [59.9%; 95% CI 53.1–66.7] of 197 vs 37 [38.9%; 95% CI 29.1–48.8] of 95; p=0.0006)
safety
- Treatment discontinuation because of any adverse events (35 [18%] of 197 vs 10 [11%] of 95) or because of treatment-related adverse events (21 [11%] vs three [3%]) occurred more often in the ramucirumab group than in the placebo group
- most frequently reported treatment-emergent adverse events of any grade in the ramucirumab group were fatigue (54 [27%]), peripheral oedema (50 [25%]), hypertension (49 [25%]) and decreased appetite (46 [23%])
Grade 3 or worse treatment-emergent adverse events that occurred in at least 5% of patients in either group were hypertension (25 [13%] in the ramucirumab group vs five [5%] in the placebo group), hyponatraemia (11 [6%] vs 0) and increased aspartate aminotransferase (six [3%] vs five [5%]
- Serious adverse events of any grade and cause were recorded in 68 (35%) participants in the ramucirumab group and 28 (29%) in the placebo group, whereas treatment-related adverse events of any grade were recorded in 21 (11%) and five (5%) patients, respectively.
- Three patients in the ramucirumab group died from treatment-emergent adverse events

Author's Conclusion:  The efficacy and safety results of the pivotal REACH-2 study show that ramucirumab could be a well-tolerated second-line treatment for patients with advanced hepatocellular carcinoma and increased α-fetoprotein concentrations. To our knowledge, REACH-2 is the first successful phase 3 study in a biomarker-selected patient population with advanced hepatocellular carcinoma. The safety profile also makes ramucirumab a good potential candidate for assessment in combination with other agents, including immune checkpoint inhibitors, and in previous lines of therapy.
Methodical Notes
HCC Finn 2020 Atezolizumab+Bevacizumab
Finn, R. S. et al. Atezolizumab plus Bevacizumab in Unresectable Hepatocellular Carcinoma. New England journal of medicine. 382. 1894?1905. 2020
Population Intervention - Comparison Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  2

Study type:  Randomized controlled trial, open label, phase 3.

Number of Patient:  501 total, randomized to 336 in the atezolizumab–bevacizumab group and 165 patients in the sorafenib group.

Recruitung Phase:  March 15, 2018, and January 30, 2019.

Inclusion Criteria:  Eligible patients were 18 years of age or older and had locally advanced metastatic or unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma (or both), with the diagnosis confirmed by histologic or cytologic analysis or clinical features according to the American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases criteria for patients with cirrhosis. Eligible patients had not previously received systemic therapy for liver cancer and had measurable disease, as defined by Response Evaluation Criteria in Solid Tumors, version 1.1 (RECIST 1.1), that was not amenable to curative or locoregional therapies or that had progressed thereafter; a performance status score of 0 or 1 on the Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group (ECOG) scale (scores range from 0 to 5, with higher numbers reflecting greater disability); an A classification on the Child–Pugh liver function scale (a threecategory scale [A, B, or C], with C indicating the most severe compromise of liver function); and adequate hematologic and organ function.

Exclusion Criteria:  History of autoimmune disease, coinfection with hepatitis B or hepatitis C virus, and untreated or incompletely treated esophageal or gastric varices (assessed with esophagogastroduodenoscopy and treated according to local clinical practice) with bleeding or high risk of bleeding
Intervention:  Atezolizumab plus Bevacizumab

Comparison:  Sorafenib
Primary:  The coprimary end points were overall survival (the time from randomization to death from any cause) and progression-free survival (the time from randomization to disease progression according to RECIST 1.1, as assessed at an independent review facility, or death from any cause, whichever occurred first)

Secondary:  Secondary end points included the objective response rate and the duration of response according to investigator-assessed and independently- assessed RECIST 1.1 and hepatocellular carcinoma–specific modified RECIST (mRECIST) criteria; and the time to deterioration of quality of life, physical functioning, and role functioning, as reported by the patient, with deterioration defined as a decrease from baseline of 10 points or more on the EORTC QLQ–C30 maintained for two consecutive assessments or a decrease of 10 points or more in one assessment followed by death from any cause within 3 weeks. Safety and side-effect profiles were assessed on the basis of the nature, frequency, and severity of adverse events, according to NCI Common Terminology Criteria for Adverse Events, version 4.0.

Results:  The intention-to-treat population included 336 patients in the atezolizumab–bevacizumab group and 165 patients in the sorafenib group. At the time of the primary analysis (August 29, 2019), the hazard ratio for death with atezolizumab– bevacizumab as compared with sorafenib was 0.58 (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.42 to 0.79; P<0.001). Overall survival at 12 months was 67.2% (95% CI, 61.3 to 73.1) with atezolizumab–bevacizumab and 54.6% (95% CI, 45.2 to 64.0) with sorafenib. Median progression-free survival was 6.8 months (95% CI, 5.7 to 8.3) and 4.3 months (95% CI, 4.0 to 5.6) in the respective groups (hazard ratio for disease progression or death, 0.59; 95% CI, 0.47 to 0.76; P<0.001). Grade 3 or 4 adverse events occurred in 56.5% of 329 patients who received at least one dose of atezolizumab–bevacizumab and in 55.1% of 156 patients who received at least one dose of sorafenib. Grade 3 or 4 hypertension occurred in 15.2% of patients in the atezolizumab–bevacizumab group; however, other high-grade toxic effects were infrequent.

Author's Conclusion:  In patients with unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma, atezolizumab combined with bevacizumab resulted in better overall and progression-free survival outcomes than sorafenib.
Methodical Notes

Funding Sources:  Supported by Merck Sharp & Dohme, a subsidiary of Merck, Kenilworth, NJ.

COI:  Declared, see article for list.

Randomization:  Randomization was performed using an interactive voice-response/integrated Web-response system, with stratification by geographic region (Asia excluding Japan v non-Asia including Japan), macrovascular invasion (MVI; yes v no), and a-fetoprotein level (, 200 v $ 200 ng/mL).

Blinding:  Double-blind study.

Dropout Rate/ITT-Analysis:  Efficacy was assessed in the intention-to-treat population.
HCC Facciorusso 2021 Lenvatinib vs Sorafenib

Facciorusso, A. et al. Lenvatinib versus sorafenib as first-line therapy of advanced hepatocellular carcinoma: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Transl Res. 13. 2379-2387. 2021
Evidence level/Study Types P - I - C Outcomes/Results Literature References
Evidence level:  2

Study type:  Systematic review and meta-analysis (4 observational studies)
Databases:  MEDLINE, Embase, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, Scopus, and Web of Science

Search period:  Inception - through November 2020.

Inclusion Criteria:  (a) Patients: adults HCC patients not previously treated with systemic therapies (first-line setting); (b) Inter- ventions: lenvatinib; (c) Comparator: sorafenib; (d) Outcome: overall survival, progression-free survival, tumor response, severe adverse event rate.

Exclusion Criteria:  (a) single cohort non-comparative studies, (b) post-hoc or sub-analyses of trials already included, (c) studies conducted in a second-line setting (i.e. after sorafenib progression).
Population:  Adults HCC patients not previously treated with systemic therapies (first-line setting).

Intervention:  Lenvatinib

Comparison:  Sorafenib
Primary:  Overall survival

Secondary:  Survival rate (at 1-, and 2-year), progression-free survival (PFS), tumor response, and severe adverse event rate.

Results:  Five studies enrolling 1481 patients were included. No difference in terms of overall survival was detected (HR 0.81, 0.58-1.11) and median survival was 13.4 months (9.38-17.48) in lenvatinib and 11.4 months (8.46-14.47) in sorafenib patients. Lenvatinib led to a significant improvement of PFS (HR 0.67, 0.48-0.94) and median PFS was 5.88 months (3.68-8) in lenvatinib and 4.17 months (3.08-5.25) in sorafenib patients. Lenvatinib determined a considerably higher rate of objective response (33.3%, 23.6%-43% versus 6.5%, 3.5%-9.5%; OR 7.70, 2.99-19.82), and of disease control rate (76.9%, 70.4%-83.5% versus 52.7%, 40.7%-64.6%; OR 2.41, 1.55-3.77). No difference between lenvatinib and sorafenib in terms of severe adverse event rate was observed (OR 1.31, 0.82-2.09).

Author's Conclusion:  Lenvatinib prolongs progression-free survival as compared to sorafenib in HCC patients, although this result does not translate to a significant survival benefit.
4 observational studies included:
Kudo 2018, Kim 2020, Nakano 2020, Tomonari 2020.
Methodical Notes
Funding Sources:  None declared.

COI:  None.

Study Quality:  The risk of bias of individual studies was assessed independently by two authors in the context of the primary outcome, based on the Cochrane Collaboration’s tool for assessing the risk of bias for RCTs and the Newcastle Ottawa scale [12] for non-rando- mized studies.
Quality of included studies was judged as high(2), medium(1) and low(1).

Heterogeneity:  Presence of heterogeneity was measured in terms of I2 tests with I2<20% interpreted as low-level heterogeneity and I2 between 20% and 50% as moderate heterogeneity.
Heterogeneity was low to moderate in all analyses.

Publication Bias:  Any po- tential publication bias was verified through visual assessment of funnel plots. No significant publication bias was found by means of visual examination of funnel plot.

Notes:  
Oxford level of evidence: 2 Systematic review and meta-analysis of non-randomized controlled cohort / follow-up study.
Sorafenib Child B
McNamara, M. G. et al. Sorafenib as first-line therapy in patients with advanced Child-Pugh B hepatocellular carcinoma-a meta-analysis. Eur J Cancer. 105. 1-9. 2018
Evidence level/Study Types P - I - C Outcomes/Results Literature References
Evidence level:  2

Study type:  systematic review and meta analysis
Databases:  Medline [host: Ovid], Embase [host:Ovid], Cochrane database of systematic reviews)

Search period:  from 2002 to February 2015

Inclusion Criteria:  studies investigating the use of first-line sorafenib therapy in patients with advanced HCC and Child-Pugh A or B liver function

Exclusion Criteria:  studies were excluded if they included patients with HIV or if data were split by alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) responders, development of skin toxicity or age
Population:  patients with advanced HCC and Child-Pugh A or B liver function

Intervention:  sorafenib as first-line therapy

Comparison:  none
Primary:  overall survival
response rate
adverse events

Secondary:  none

Results:  basics
- 30 studies included comprising 8678 patients
- Child-Pugh status was available for 8577 patients (99%), among whom 79% were classified as Child-Pugh A and 19% as Child-Pugh B
overall survival
- median OS for the entire cohort was 7.2 months: 8.8 months in Child-Pugh A and 4.6 months in Child-Pugh B cirrhosis.
- Among the four studies (N=394) reporting a multivariable comparison of the Child-Pugh status, CP B liver function was associated with a significantly worse OS (HR 2.82, 95% CI 2.04-3.92,P<0.001)
response rate
- no differences in the reported response rates between those with Child-Pugh A (4.6%) or Child-Pugh B liver function (4.2%) (P=0.9)
adverse events
- 35% of patients with Child-Pugh A and 35% with Child-Pugh B developed a grade III or IV AE (OR 0.95,95% CI 0.73-1.23,P=0.7).
- no difference in reported grade III/IV skin rash (OR 0.56,95% CI 0.21-1.49,P=0.25), diarrhoea (OR 1.12, 95%CI 0.61-2.06,P=0.72) or hypertension (OR 0.45, 95%CI 0.13-1.61,P=0.22)


Author's Conclusion:  In conclusion, there were similar response rates and rates of treatment discontinuation without progression and similar rates of treatment-related death in patients with Child-Pugh B liver function, which is unlikely to be clinically meaningful as survival was shorter than in those with a Child-Pugh A score, driven by liver dysfunction; therefore, sorafenib should be used with caution in the population of patients with a Child-Pugh score of B. In addition, use of the Child-Pugh score alone may not have adequate discriminatory ability in choosing patients for inclusion within clinical trials, and combination or alternative scores could be considered.
- 30 studies included
- see article for citations
Methodical Notes
Funding Sources:  - Dr. Rille Pihlak is funded by the Collins PhD fellowship and Pancreatic Cancer UK.
- Dr. Angela Lamarca was partly funded by the European Society for Medical Oncology Translational Fellowship Programme and the Pancreatic Cancer Research Fund.
- Dr Noor ul-ain-Tariq was funded by the Timpson PhD fellowship.

COI:  - Dr McNamara and Dr Hubner have received travel and accommodation assistance from Bayer HealthCare Pharmaceuticals, Inc.
- All other authors have no conflicts of interest to declare.

Study Quality:  not assessed

Heterogeneity:   - Statistical heterogeneity was reported using Cochran Q and I2 statistics. For analyses where there was evidence of statistical heterogeneity (Cochran Q p<0.10 or="" i="" sup="">2>50%), the random effect method was used. Otherwise, the fixed effect model was used.
- no hetereogeneity noticed among studies

Publication Bias:  not assessed

Notes:  
evidence level 2: SR and MA, downgraded due to missing study quality assessment

Leal, C. R. G. et al. Survival and tolerance to sorafenib in Child-Pugh B patients with hepatocellular carcinoma: a prospective study. Invest New Drugs. 36. 911-918. 2018
Population Intervention - Comparison Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  3

Study type:  Non-randomized phase 2 controlled trial

Number of Patient:  130 (65 per group)


Recruitung Phase:  2011-2015

Inclusion Criteria:  326 HCC patients treated in outpatient clinic from January 2011 to December 2015. Of these, 130 had advanced HCC and were treated with sorafenib.
All patients were consecutively enrolled in the study and assigned to one of two groups, according to the Child-Pugh classification: CP-A and CP-B. There were 65 patients in each group, through coincidence.


Exclusion Criteria:  -
Intervention:  400 mg of oral sorafenib twice daily

Comparison:  No control intervention
Primary:  Survival and tolerance to sorafenib

Secondary:  -

Results:  Population: 130 HCC patients, 65 in the CP-A and 65 in the CP-B group.
108 (83.1%) were males, with a mean age of 62 ± 12 years. CP-B patients comprised 29 CP-B7 patients (22%), 21 CPB8 patients (16%), and 15 CP-B9 patients (12%). Most patients were classified as BCLC C (87.7%) before starting sorafenib therapy. Infection by Hepatitis C virus was the predominant cause of liver disease (55.4%). Sorafenib was the initial treatment modality in 44.6% of the patients. Most patients were classified as PS 0 (56.1%).
Results: Tolerance Most patients (111/130, 85.4%) were tolerant to a full dose of sorafenib (800 mg/d). Nineteen patients who made use of anti-coagulants, had advanced age, or had ECOG-PS of 2 or more, started on half-dose sorafenib. Adverse events: The occurrence of AEs led to dose reductions in 42 (32.3%) patients: 28/65 (43.1%) were CP-A patients and 14/65 (21.5%) were CP-B patients (p = 0.007). The commonest AEs were diarrhea (60.8%), hand-foot syndrome (32.3%), and fatigue (23.8%). Grade 3/4 AEs in the CP-A and CP-B patients included hyperbilirubinemia (18.5 and 30.8%, respectively, p = 0.770), ascites (33.8 and 60%, p = 0.003), and encephalopathy (6.2 and 33.8%, p < 0.001). Sorafenib was discontinued in 59 patients (45.4%): 35/65 (53.8%) were CP-A patients and 24/65 (36.9%) were CP-B patients (p = 0.039). The most common cause for ending sorafenib treatment was severe AE, which occurred in 38/59
patients (20 in CP-A and 18 in CP-B; 64% of all patients),followed by disease progression, seen in 19/59 (32%) patients.
Survival: The patients with advanced HCC treated with sorafenib had an OS of 10 months. The median survival of CP-A patients was significantly higher than that of CP-B patients: 12 months vs. 6.0 months (p = 0.046). In CP-B patients, survival was 8 months for the CP-B7 patients, 5 months for the CP-B8 patients, and 6 months for the CP-B9 patients (p = 0.173).

Author's Conclusion:  ".This large real-life cohort of CP-B HCC patients treated with sorafenib found a higher OS than that described in the literature, with a satisfactory safety profile. The occurrence of AEs in this group of patients was high but manageable. CP-B patients can tolerate treatment and may benefit from sorafenib. Therefore, the use of sorafenib should be considered for CP-B HCC patients while further studies in this specific population of patients should be carried out."
Methodical Notes

Funding Sources:  Bayer HealthCare, Onyx Pharmaceuticals and Biocompatibles UK, Ltd; NCT 00855218. Bayer, Onyx, and Biocompatibles UK, Ltd., sponsored the study, oversaw treatment, and performed all statistical analyses. Data
were managed in parallel by the sponsors and the principal investigators.

COI:  Riccardo Lencioni has received honoraria from Bayer HealthCare and Biocompatibles UK Ltd, and research funding from Bayer HealthCare; Josep M. Llovet has received consulting fees from Bayer HealthCare Pharmaceuticals, Onyx Pharmaceuticals, Bristol-Myers-Squibb, Biocompatibles, Imclone-Lilly, and Novartis; and research funding from Bayer HealthCare Pharmaceuticals, Boehringer-Ingelheim, and Bristol-Myers-Squibb; Guohong Han,
Won Young Tak, Jiamei Yang, Alfredo Guglielmi, Seung Woon Paik, Do Young Kim, Gar-Yang Chau, Angelo Luca, and Luis Ruiz del Arbol have no relevant relationships to disclose; Maria Reig has received consulting fees and honoraria from Bayer HealthCare Pharmaceuticals and Onyx Pharmaceuticals; Marie-Aude Leberre, Woody Niu, Kate Nicholson, and Gerold Meinhardt are employees of Bayer HealthCare Pharmaceuticals; Jordi Bruix has received honoraria and research funding from Bayer HealthCare Pharmaceuticals and consulting fees from Bayer HealthCare Pharmaceuticals, Onyx Pharmaceuticals, Biocompatibles, BristolMyers Squibb, Glaxo, Kowa, Novartis, and ArQule.

Randomization:  Patients were radomized 1:1 to sorafenib or placebo group and stratified by geographic region (Americas, Europe, Asia Pacific) and by serum alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) concentration (<400 ng="" l="" and="" p400="" ng="" l="" br="">
Blinding:  The primary efficacy objective was TTP by blinded central review.

Dropout Rate/ITT-Analysis:  Efficacy was assessed in the intention-to-treat (ITT) population, defined as all randomized patients. The safety population consisted of all patients who received at least one dose of study drug. TTP, time to MVI/EHS, OS, and TTUP in the two groups were compared using stratified log-rank tests, with a one-sided alpha of 0.15.

130 patients of the sorafenib and 132 patients in the placebo group discontinued treatment. In the end 23/19 continued treatment.

Notes:  
Article from hand search
CEBM Level of evidence: 2 (randomized controlled trial).
Lencioni, R. et al. Sorafenib or placebo plus TACE with doxorubicin-eluting beads for intermediate stage HCC: The SPACE trial. J Hepatol. 64. 1090-1098. 2016
Population Intervention - Comparison Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  2

Study type:  Phase II randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study.

Number of Patient:  307 patients with intermediate stage HCC at 85 centers in 13 countries.

Recruitung Phase:  

Inclusion Criteria:  Patients with unresectable, multinodular, asymptomatic HCC (BCLC stage B), with measurable lesions on CT or MRI; no macrovascular invasion (MVI) or extrahepatic spread (EHS); Child-Pugh class A and compensated liver function; an Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group (ECOG) performance status of 0; no ascites; age P18 years, with a life expectancy P12 weeks; and adequate bone marrow function (hemoglobin >9.0 g/dl; absolute neutrophil count (ANC) >1500/mm3 ; platelet count P60 109/L), liver function (bilirubin <3 mg="" dl="" alanine="" aminotransferase="" alt="" and="" aspartate="" aminotransferase="" ast="" 5="" times="" the="" upper="" limit="" of="" normal="" uln="" alkaline="" phosphatase="" 4="" times="" uln="" prothrombin="" time-international="" normalized="" ratio="" pt-inr="" 2="" 3="" or="" pt="" 6="" seconds="" above="" control="" and="" kidney="" function="" serum="" creatinine="" 1="" 5="" times="" uln="" amylase="" and="" lipase="" 3="" times="" uln="" br="">
Exclusion Criteria:  Patients were excluded if they had diffuse HCC; vascular invasion (including segmental portal obstruction); extrahepatic tumor spread; advanced liver disease, as shown by Child-Pugh class B or C liver function, gastrointestinal bleeding, encephalopathy, or ascites; or contraindications for embolization, including
known hepatofugal blood flow or portosystemic shunt. Patients were also excluded if the target lesion had previously undergone local treatment, including resection, radiofrequency ablation (RFA), percutaneous ethanol injection (PEI), or TACE; if they had received local therapy within 4 weeks of a baseline scan; had prior transarterial embolization or TACE; were previously treated with a kinase inhibitor; or had received anthracyclines or radiotherapy for HCC.
Intervention:  Patients were randomized 1:1 to DEB-TACE (300–500 lm beads; 150 mg doxorubicin) plus sorafenib (400 mg twice daily, continuously, n= 154) or matching placebo (n=153).
Treatment was divided into 4-week cycles from the starting date of study drug. Sorafenib or placebo was initiated on day 1 and the first DEB-TACE session was performed 3–7 days later. Bilobar HCCs were treated in a single session. Subsequent TACE treatments were performed on day 1 (± 4 days) of cycles 3, 7, and 13 and every 6 cycles thereafter. Treatment interruptions and up to two dose reductions (to 400 mg once daily
and to 400 mg every other day) were permitted for drug-related AEs; patients who required further dose reductions were withdrawn from the study.

Comparison:  see intervention.
Primary:  Time-to-tumor progression (TTP): measured from the time of randomization until radiologic disease progression, according to modified response evaluation criteria in solid tumors (mRECIST).

Secondary:  - time to MVI/EHS, defined as the time from randomization to evidence of MVI/EHS on CT/MRI scans; OS, measured from the time of randomization until death from any cause;
- overall response rate (ORR);
- disease control rate (DCR);
- a novel endpoint of time to unTACEable progression (TTUP) (for details see text).
Safety outcomes included AEs.

Patients were assessed at screening and randomization, on day 1 of every 4-week cycle (with CT and/or MRI performed every 8 weeks), and at the end of the study (7–14 days after stopping the study drug).

Results:  The HR for TTP for sorafenib plus DEB-TACE vs. placebo plus DEB-TACE was 0.797 (95% CI, 0.588–1.080, one sided p = 0.072.

HR for time to MVI/EHS for sorafenib plus DEB-TACE vs. placebo plus DEBTACE was 0.621 (95% CI, 0.321–1.200, p = 0.076; Fig. 2B); with the median not reached in either group.

HR for OS in the sorafenib plus DEB-TACE vs. the placebo plus DEB-TACE group was 0.898 (95% CI, 0.606–1.330, p = 0.295; Fig. 2C), with the median OS not reached in either group after a median follow-up of 270 days (52 events) and 272 days (49 events), respectively.

TTUP was shorter in the sorafenib plus DEB-TACE than in the placebo plus DEBTACE group (HR 1.586, 95% CI, 1.200–2.096, p = 0.999; Fig. 2D), with median TTUPs of 95 days (95% CI, 62–113 days) and 224 days (95% CI, 158–288 days).

Author's Conclusion:  The overall results of this exploratory trial suggest that the combination of sorafenib plus DEB-TACE was feasible, with manageable toxicities, in patients with intermediate stage HCC and good liver function. The combination did not provide meaningful clinical benefit compared with DEB-TACE alone. The regional differences highlight that the amount of combined treatment received may have been a critical determinant of the clinical outcomes. Likewise, discordance between investigator and central radiologic review and the criteria for additional TACE also may have impacted outcomes. Finally, whether DEB-TACE is the optimal backbone for combination with sorafenib is still unresolved. These experiences may help in the design of studies aiming to clarify the role of sorafenib plus TACE for patients with intermediate stage HCC.
Methodical Notes

Funding Sources:  GIDEON was sponsored by Bayer HealthCare Pharmaceuticals Inc. and Onyx Pharmaceuticals, an Amgen subsidiary.

COI:  Professor Marrero has received honoraria for advisory arrangements from Bayer HealthCare Pharmaceuticals, Inc. and Onyx Pharmaceuticals, an Amgen subsidiary. Professors Furuse and Geschwind have received honoraria for advisory arrangements and research grant support from Bayer HealthCare Pharmaceuticals, Inc. Professor Venook has received honoraria for advisory arrangements and research grant support from Bayer HealthCare Pharmaceuticals, Inc. and Onyx Pharmaceuticals, an Amgen subsidiary. Professors Lencioni and Bronowicki have received honoraria for advisory arrangements from Bayer HealthCare Pharmaceuticals, Inc. Professor Papandreou has received research grant support from Bayer HealthCare Pharmaceuticals, Inc. Dr Nakajima, Mr Lehr, and Ms Heldner are employees of Bayer HealthCare Pharmaceuticals, Inc. Dr Nakajima has stock ownership with Bayer HealthCare Pharmaceuticals, Inc. Drs Kudo, Chen, Dagher, Ladrón de Guevara, Sanyal, Takayama, Yoon, and Ye have no relevant disclosures to report.

Randomization:  no

Blinding:  no

Dropout Rate/ITT-Analysis:  Patients who received at least one dose of sorafenib and underwent at least one follow-up assessment were evaluable for safety, while the intent-to-treat population comprised any patient who received one or more doses of sorafenib. The safety population comprised 3,202 patients and the intent-to-treat population comprised 3,213 patients.


Pressiani, T. et al. Sorafenib in patients with Child-Pugh class A and B advanced hepatocellular carcinoma: a prospective feasibility analysis. Ann Oncol. 24. 406-11. 2013
Population Intervention - Comparison Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  3

Study type:   multicentre, phase II, open-label trial

Number of Patient:  300 patients were enrolled in the study

Recruitung Phase:  between April 2007 and July 2008

Inclusion Criteria:  patients who
- had cyto-histologically confirmed advanced HCC unsuitable for resection or loco-regional therapy,
- Barcelona Clinic Liver Cancer (BCLC) stage B or C,
- CP liver function class A or B,
- Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group (ECOG) performance status (PS) score≤2
- adequate haematological, hepatic (according to CP status) and renal function and a life expectancy of≥12 weeks.
- Patients must be untreated with targeted therapies and have at least one measurable target lesion according to the Response Evaluation Criteria in Solid Tumours (RECIST) v.1.0.


Exclusion Criteria:  no specification
Intervention:  - During the first phase, all patients received continuous oral treatment with sorafenib 400 mg twice daily until radiological progression (as defined by RECIST), symptomatic progression or deterioration of PS, unacceptable toxic effects or patientwithdrawal.

Comparison:  none
Primary:  progression-free survival (PFS)

Secondary:  overall survival (OS)
Time to progression (TTP)

Results:  basics
- 297 patients were evaluated: 234 (78.8%) Child-Pugh A, 44 (14.8%) Child-Pugh B7, 14 (4.7%) Child-Pugh B8, 5 (1.7) Child-Pugh B9
- treatment duration was 3.3 (0.03–32.3) months ranging from 4.2 (0.03–32.3) to 1.9 (0.03–19.44) in patients with CP class A and B, respectively (p<0.001).
- median follow-up was 41.6 (0.4–49.1) months during which 272 patients (91.6%) died.
- Adverse events for the two CP groups were similar.
progression-free survival (PFS)
- median PFS for the total patient population was 3.9 (0.1–35.3) months.
- PFS for patients with CP class A or B was 4.3 (0.1–35.3) and 2.1 (0.3–27.3) months, respectively (log-rank,P< 0.001).
- multivariate analysis: greater risk of disease progression or death for CP class B patients (HR 1.87, 95% CI: 1.41–2.48,P< 0.001); reduced risk in PFS for patients <68 years="" compared="" with="" those="" 68="" years="" hr="" 0="" 77="" 95="" ci:="" 0="" 60="" 0="" 97="" p="0.026)
Time to progression (TTP)
- Data on TTP available in 240 patients (80.8%; 206 CP class A and 34 CP class B)
- median TTP was 4.1 (0.03–16.0) months for the total patient population
- not statistically different according to CP status: TTP for CP class A patients 4.2 (0.03–31.7) and for CP class B patients 3.8 (range 1.3–16.0) months (log-rank,P< 0.102)
overall survival (OS)
- median OS was 9.1 (0.4–49.1) months for the total patient population
- statistically significant greater risk of death for CP class B patients (HR 3.23, 95% CI: 2.38–4.39,P< 0.001).
- The median OS was 10.0 (0.5–49.1) for CP class A patients and 3.8 (0.4–27.3) months for CP class B patients (log-rank,P< 0.001)
- statistically significant differences in OS according to AST baseline values (log-rank,P=0.008),vascular invasion (log-rank,P=0.049) and HCC disease extent(log-rank,P=0.025)
- Patients with extrahepatic spread had a greater risk of death than those with intrahepatic disease (HR 1.55, 95% CI: 1.15–2.08,P=0.026).



Author's Conclusion:  In conclusion, although limited by the statistical design of our study, tolerability data suggest that CP class B patients might be safely treated with sorafenib. However, its activity in this patient population remains to be defined, bearing in mind that it is not a homogeneous group. Further prospective trials specifically designed to investigate the efficacy and safety of sorafenib in CP class B subgroups, particularly in those patients with less compromised liver function (CP score 7), are warranted. While waiting for the results of these studies, the administration of sorafenib in CP class B patients with advanced HCC remains open to discussion and in our opinion could be feasible in carefully selected patient groups.
Methodical Notes

Funding Sources:  The study was funded, administered, and sponsored by Merck & Co, Inc (Kenilworth, NJ, USA).

COI:  - AXZ has served as a consultant for Eisai, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Merck & Co, Novartis, Sanofi, AstraZeneca, Bayer, Exelixis, and Eli Lilly and Company; and reports research funding to his institution from Eli Lilly and Company, Bayer, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Novartis, and Merck & Co.
- RSF has served as a consultant for Pfizer, Bayer, Novartis, Bristol-Myers Squibb, and Merck & Co; and reports research funding to his institution from Pfizer.
- JE has received honoraria from BTG and travel expenses from Amgen and Bristol-Myers Squibb.
- SO has served as a consultant for Bayer and Eisai; and has received honoraria from Bayer and Eisai.
- DP has received honoraria from Bayer, Celgene, NuCana, and Bristol-Myers Squibb; has served as a consultant for Bayer, Celgene, NuCana, and Bristol-Myers Squibb; and has received research funding from Bayer and NuCana.
- CV has served as a consultant for Bayer, Ipsen, and Novartis; and has received research funding from Ipsen and Bayer.
- VZ has served as a consultant for Merck Sharp & Dohme, Bristol-Myers Squibb, and Celgene; has been on a speakers’ bureau for Bayer, Roche, Pfizer, and Janssen; and has received travel fees from Merck Sharp & Dohme, Roche, and Bayer.
- AV has served as a consultant for Novartis, Delcath Systems, Eli Lilly and Company, Roche, Amgen, Bayer, and Baxalta; has received travel expenses from Bayer, Roche, and Ipsen; has received honoraria from Novartis, Roche, Bayer, Sanofi, Amgen, Delcath Systems, Eli Lilly and Company, Bristol-Myers Squibb, and Merck Sharp & Dohme; and has received research funding from Novartis.
- DS has served as a consultant for Eisai, Baxalta, Novartis, and Blueprint Medicines; has received travel expenses from Bayer, Ipsen and MiNA Therapeutics; and has received honoraria from Pfizer, Bayer, and Ipsen.
- SLC has served as a consultant for Novartis, Merck Sharp & Dohme, and MedImmune (AstraZeneca); has received honoraria from Bayer; and has received research funding from Novartis and Sirtex Medical.
- JK has served as a consultant for Eli Lilly and Company and Merck & Co; has received honoraria from Novartis; and has received research funding from AstraZeneca.
- BD has served as a consultant for Eisai and Bayer; has received honoraria from Bayer, Merck Sharp & Dohme, Merck Serono, Eli Lilly and Company, and Bristol-Myers Squibb; and has received travel grants from Janssen, Celgene, and Bristol-Myers Squibb.
- ALW, SWE, JM, and ABS are employees of Merck Sharp and Dohme, a subsidiary of Merck & Co, Kenilworth, NJ, USA; and own stock or stock options in the company.
- A-LC has served as a consultant for Merck Sharp & Dohme, Exillixis, Merck KGaA, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Bayer, BeiGene, and Ono Pharmaceuticals; has served on advisory board for Novartis, and has received honoraria from Bayer and Merck KGaA.
- MK has served as a consultant for Kowa, Merck Sharp & Dohme, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Bayer, Chugai Pharma, and Taiho Pharmaceuticals; has received honoraria from Bayer, Eisai, Merck Sharp & Dohme, and Ajinomoto; and has received research funding from Chugai Pharma, Otsuka, Takeda Pharmaceuticals, Taiho Pharmaceuticals, Sumitomo Dainippon Pharma, Daiichi Sankyo, Merck Sharp & Dohme, Eisai, Bayer, and AbbVie.
- SC, LF, and GV declare no competing interests.


Randomization:  none

Blinding:  none

Dropout Rate/ITT-Analysis:  One (1%) patient was enrolled in error. 104 enrolled patients were treated with at least one dose of pembrolizumab and were included in the primary analysis.


HCC 2024 A+B vs. Lenvatinib Child B

Schlüsselfrage:

2024 Update - HCC 20 Systemtherapie
NEWCASTLE - OTTAWA Checklist: Cohort: 1 Bewertung(en)
Rimini, Margherita. Survival outcomes from atezolizumab plus bevacizumab versus Lenvatinib in Child Pugh B unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma patients. Journal of cancer research and clinical oncology. 149. . 2023
Evidence level Methodical Notes Patient characteristics Interventions
Evidence level:  3

Study type:  Retrospective cohort study
Funding sources:  The present work received no fnancial support.

Conflict of Interests:  Stated, see article.

Randomization:  /

Blinding:  /

Dropout rates:  
Total no. patients:  217

Recruiting Phase:  Patients underwent treatment with atezolizumab plus bevacizumab between December 2018 and May 2022, or Lenvatinib between June 2018 and August 2021 or sorafenib between September 2009 and December 2019

Inclusion criteria:  Eligible patients had Child–Pugh B (B7–B8) histologically confirmed or clinically confirmed diagnosis of HCC according to international guidelines, and no previous systemic therapy.

Exclusion criteria:  
Interventions:  All patients received Lenvatinib until Atezolizumab plus bevacizumab approval. Then, the choice between the two treatments was left to the treating physician. Lenvatinib was
administered according to the REFLECT trial, thus patients received 12 mg if baseline bodyweight was≥60 kg or 8 mg if baseline bodyweight was<60 kg="" once="" daily="" orally="" atezolizumab="" plus="" bevacizumab="" was="" administered="" as="" reported="" in="" the="" imbrave150="" trial="" thus="" all="" patients="" received="" 1200="" mg="" of="" atezolizumab="" plus="" 15mg="" kg="" of="" body="" weight="" of="" bevacizumab="" intravenously="" every="" 3="" weeks="" br="">
65 (30%) received atezolizumab plus bevacizumab, and 152 (70%) received lenvatinib.


Comparison:  
Notes: Article submitted by hand search.

Newcastle-Ottawa Scale (NOS) for Cohort studies 8 /9 stars.

Oxford Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine 2011 Levels of Evidence (Treatment benefits): 3 (Non-randomized controlled cohort/follow-up study)


Author's conclusion:  The present study suggests for the frst time a major beneft from Lenvatinib compared to atezolizumab plus bevacizumab in a large cohort of patients with CP B class HCC.
Outcome Measures/results Primary  overall survival (OS) of CP B patients treated with Lenvatinib compared to atezolizumab plus bevacizumab

Secondary  progression-free survival (PFS), the objective response rate (ORR) and the
safety profle experienced in Child B patients receiving Lenvatinib versus atezolizumab plus bevacizumab.
Results:  The median follow-up for the entire population was 11.3 months (95% CI 7.2–20.7). The median follow-up for patients receiving Lenvatinib was 12.2 months (95% CI 10.1–33.2); the median follow-up for patients receiving atezolizumab plus bevacizumab was 10.9 (95% CI 6.2–20.7).

Overall survival
The mOS for patients receiving Lenvatinib was 13.8 months (95% CI: 11.6–16.0), compared to 8.2 months (95% CI 6.3–10.2) for patients receiving atezolizumab plus bevacizumab as first-line treatment (atezolizumab plus bevacizumab Vs Lenvatinib: HR 1.9, 95% CI 1.2–3.0, p=0.0050).
The multivariate analysis confirmed that patients receiving Lenvatinib as first-line treatment have a significantly longer OS compared to patients receiving atezolizumab plus bevacizumab (HR 2.01; 95% CI 1.29–3.25, p=0.0023). By evaluating the cohort of patients who received atezolizumab plus bevacizumab, we found that Child B patients with ECOG PS 0, or BCLC B stage or ALBI grade 1 were those who had benefited from the treatment thus showing survival outcomes no significantly different compared to those receiving Lenvatinib.

Progression-free survival
No statistically significant differences were found since patients receiving Lenvatinib experienced an mPFS of 8.2 months (95% CI 6.5–9.9) compared to 6.9 months (95% CI:4.8–9.0) in patients receiving atezolizumab plus bevacizumab (atezolizumab plus bevacizumab Vs Lenvatinib: HR 1.0, 95% CI 0.7–1.5; p = 0.8443)

ORR and DCR
Statistically differences were reported in patients treated with lenvatinib compared to atezolizumab plus bevacizumab in terms of ORR (35 Vs 18%, p = 0.0185), but not in terms of DCR (65 Vs 55%, p=0.2213

Safety outcomes
The overall incidence of drug-related AEs was 44%. No statistically diferences were reported in patients treated with atezolizumab plus bevacizumab and Lenvatinib (40 Vs 45%, respectively). Most frequent AEs were diarrhea (13%) and hypertension (14%).

HCC Kudo 2021 Nivo Child B

Kudo, M. et al. CheckMate 040 cohort 5: A phase I/II study of nivolumab in patients with advanced hepatocellular carcinoma and Child-Pugh B cirrhosis. J Hepatol. 75. 600-609. 2021
Population Intervention / Comparison Outcomes/Results Methodical Notes
Evidence level:  3
Study type:  Phase I/II, open-label clinical trial (Child-Pugh B cohort of CheckMate 040).
Number of Patients:  49 patients with aHCC in the Child-Pugh B cohort of CheckMate 040 were enrolled and included in the analysis (patients from 27 sites in 5 countries).
Recruiting Phase:  August 19, 2016, and October 27, 2017.
Inclusion Criteria:  - Child-Pugh B (B7–B8) histologically confirmed aHCC not eligible for surgical and/or locoregional therapy.
- no prior sorafenib treatment or documented radiographic progression on or intolerance of sorafenib;
- Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group performance status of 0 or 1;
- no to mild ascites;
- >−1 untreated lesion measurable by Response Evaluation Criteria in Solid Tumors
- non-viral HCC or HBV or HCV infection
Exclusion Criteria:  - known fibrolamellar HCC,
- sarcomatoid HCC, or mixed cholangiocarcinoma and HCC; history of hepatic encephalopathy within 2 weeks of screening;
- history of hepatorenal syndrome; paracentesis for treatment of ascites within 2 weeks of screening;
- active brain or leptomeningeal metastases; active co-infection with both HBV and HCV;
- prior liver transplant.
Intervention:  Nivolumab 240 mg flat dose intravenously for 30 min every 2 weeks until unacceptable toxicity or disease progression per RECIST v1.1.
On-treatment safety procedures included physical examinations, Child-Pugh B score assessment, and evaluation of adverse events (AEs), concurrent medications, and vital signs.
Efficacy procedures included tumour imaging (computed tomography or magnetic resonance imaging) every 6 weeks for up to 48 weeks, and every 12 weeks thereafter.
Comparison:  -
Primary:  ORR based on investigator assessment using RECIST v1.1 and duration of response (DOR).
Secondary:  Disease control rate (DCR), time to response (TTR), time to progression (TTP), TTP rate, progression-free survival (PFS), OS, OS rate, and association between biomarkers and efficacy.
Patient-reported outcomes (PROs), the 3-level version of the EQ-5D (EQ-5D-3L) and FACT-Hep questionnaires were administered before clinical activities at baseline on cycle 1 day 1 and every other cycle thereafter.
Results:  Most patients had a Child-Pugh score of B7 (76%), and the model for end-stage liver disease-sodium (MELD-Na) median score was 12 (interquartile range, 10–14).

All 49 patients were treated with nivolumab (n= 25 were sorafenib naive, n= 24 were sorafenib treated).
Disease progression was the most common reason for treatment discontinuation (78%).
No treatment-related deaths were reported.

Investigator assessed ORR was 12% (95% CI 5–25%) with 6 patients responding; disease control rate was 55% (95% CI 40–69%).
Median time to response was 2.7 months (interquartile range, 1.4–4.2), and median duration of response was 9.9 months (95% CI 9.7–9.9).
Treatment-related adverse events (TRAEs) were reported in 25 patients (51%) and led to discontinuation in 2 patients (4%).
The most frequent grade 3/4 TRAEs were hypertransaminasemia (n = 2), amylase increase (n = 2), and aspartate aminotransferase increase (n = 2). The safety of nivolumab was comparable to that in patients with Child-Pugh A aHCC.
Author's Conclusion:  Nivolumab showed clinical activity and manageable safety in patients with Child-Pugh B class aHCC compared with historical data, suggesting that the use of nivolumab monotherapy in this patient population warrants further investigation. Stable liver function was observed in patients with clinical benefit based on Child-Pugh scores and ALBI grade over time. Among responders, Child-Pugh scores improved over time, and all responders maintained stable ALBI grades for >−6 months.
Funding Sources:  This study was supported by Bristol Myers Squibb (Princeton, NJ)
and by Ono Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd. (Osaka, Japan).
COI:  See publication.
Randomization:  no.
Blinding:  no.
Dropout Rate/ITT-Analysis:  2 patients (4%)
Notes:  ROB assessment according to ROBINS-I Tool:
- Confounding, might be at high risk because no confounding applied. However, due to the phaseI/II status and ethical considerations we didn't take this into account here.
- Other Bias domains are at low risk of bias.
Overall assessment - low risk of bias.

Oxford CEBM Levels of Evidence (2011):
Non-randomized controlled cohort.
HCC Yau 2022 Nivo

Yau, T. et al. Nivolumab versus sorafenib in advanced hepatocellular carcinoma (CheckMate 459): a randomised, multicentre, open-label, phase 3 trial. The lancet. Oncology. 23. 77?90. 2022
Population Intervention / Comparison Outcomes/Results Methodical Notes
Evidence level:  2
Study type:  CheckMate 459 trial was a multicentre, nivolumab monotherapyrandomised, open-label, phase 3 trial
Number of Patients:  1320 patients were screened via medical centres in 22 countries and territories in Asia, Australasia, Europe, and North America; 743 patients were randomly assigned (n= 371 nivolumab, n= 372 sorafenib).
Recruiting Phase:  Jan 11, 2016, to May 24, 2017
Inclusion Criteria:  - Patients with advanced hepatocellular carcinoma in the first-line setting;
- at least 18 years old with histologically confirmed advanced hepatocellular carcinoma
not eligible for, or whose disease had progressed after, surgical or locoregional therapies;
- Child-Pugh class A,
- Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group performance status score of 0–1,
- no previous systemic therapy for hepatocellular carcinoma,
- no previous radiotherapy within 4 weeks before study drug commencement
- availability of fresh or archival tumour tissue for analysis.
Exclusion Criteria:  Patients were ineligible if they had fibrolamellar or sarcomatoid hepatocellular
carcinoma, mixed cholangiocarcinoma and hepatocellular carcinoma, previous liver transplant, history of hepatic encephalopathy, clinically significant ascites, portal
hypertension with bleeding, oesophageal or gastric varices within the past 6 months, or active brain metastases.
Intervention:  Nivolumab monotherapy (240 mg intravenously every 2 weeks) or
Comparison:  Sorafenib monotherapy (400 mg orally twice daily) until disease progression (by RECIST version 1.1),11 unacceptable toxicity, withdrawal of consent, or study closure.
Primary:  Overall survival (time from randomisation date to last known date alive or death).
Secondary:  - Objective response
- Progression-free survival
- Efficacy (overall survival, progression-free survival, and objective response) based on baseline tumour cell PD-L1 expression.
Results:  Median follow-up for overall survival was 15.2 months (IQR 5.7–28.0) in the nivolumab group and 13.4 (5.7–25.9) in the sorafenib group.
Disease progression was the most common reason for nivolumab or sorafenib discontinuation.

Overall survival:
Nivolumab 244/372, Sorafenib 275/372;
Median overall survival was 16.4 months (95% CI 13.9–18.4) with nivolumab and 14.7 months (11.9–17.2) with sorafenib: HR 0.85 (0.72-1.02), p=o.075.

12-months OS: Nivolumab: 60% (54-65%), Sorafenib: 55% (50-60%).
18-months OS: Nivolumab: 47% (41-52%), Sorafenib: 44% (38-49%).
24 months OS: Nivolumab: 37% (32-42%), Sorafenib: 33% (28-38%).

Objective response: Nivolumab: 57/371 (15%, 12-19%), Sorafenib: 26/372 (7%, 5-10%).

Progression free survival:
Nivolumab 305/372, Sorafenib 288/372; HR 0.93 (0.79-1.10).
12-months PFS: Nivolumab: 22% (18-27%), Sorafenib: 14% (10-18%).
18-months PFS: Nivolumab: 17% (13-21%), Sorafenib: 9% (6-13%).
24 months PFS: Nivolumab: 14% (10-18%), Sorafenib: 6% (3-10%).

The absolute numbers of patients who died were 242 (66%) in the nivolumab group and 270 (74%) in the sorafenib group, with disease progression as the primary cause of death in both groups (204 [56%] with nivolumab and 235 [65%] with sorafenib).

Adverse events:
The most common grade 3 or worse treatment-related adverse events were palmar-plantar erythrodysaesthesia (1 [<1%] of 367 patients in the nivolumab group vs 52 [14%] of patients in the sorafenib group), aspartate aminotransferase increase (22 [6%] vs 13 [4%]), and hypertension (0 vs 26 [7%]). Serious treatment-related adverse events were reported in 43 (12%) patients receiving nivolumab and 39 (11%) patients receiving sorafenib.
Four deaths in the nivolumab group and one death in the sorafenib group were assessed as treatment related.
Author's Conclusion:  In conclusion, nivolumab monotherapy did not significantly prolong overall survival compared with
sorafenib as first-line treatment for patients with advanced hepatocellular carcinoma. However, nivolumab showed durable clinical activity in terms of response frequency and durability, with encouraging long-term survival, a differentiated and favourable safety profile with no new
safety signals, and clinically meaningful improvements in HRQOL. Nivolumab is being further investigated in different treatment settings in hepatocellular carcinoma and in combination with other drugs and procedures to evaluate its efficacy and safety.
Funding Sources:  The funder of the study had a role in study design; data collection, data analysis, and data interpretation; and writing of the report.
Bristol Myers Squibb in collaboration with Ono Pharmaceutical.
COI:  see publication
Randomization:  Patients were randomly assigned (1:1) to receive nivolumab or sorafenib.
The sponsor’s Interactive Response Technology Group created the computer-generated patient randomisation schedule on the basis of the protocol requirements as approved by the sponsor’s Biostatistics and Data Sciences Group. Randomisation was done at a central location across all participating countries, with patients stratified according to cause, vascular invasion or extrahepatic spread, and geography (Asia vs non-Asia). Randomisation procedures were done via permuted blocks with a block size of four within each stratum.
Blinding:  Patients and investigators were not masked to treatment allocation.
Dropout Rate/ITT-Analysis:  Sorafenib: n= 372 analyzed for efficacy, n= 363 analyzed for safety; Nivolumab n= 371 analyzed for efficacy, n= 367 analyzed for safety.
Notes:  Cochrane risk of bias tool (Rob)-1:
0 questions(s) were considered to be unclear risk of bias; 0 question(s) were considered to be high risk of bias.
Overall risk of bias: Low.

Oxford CEBM Levels of Evidence (2011):
Randomized controlled trial.

HCC Sorafenib +/- TACE

Lencioni, R. et al. Sorafenib or placebo plus TACE with doxorubicin-eluting beads for intermediate stage HCC: The SPACE trial. J Hepatol. 64. 1090-1098. 2016
Population Intervention - Comparison Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  2

Study type:  Phase II randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study.

Number of Patient:  307 patients with intermediate stage HCC at 85 centers in 13 countries.

Recruitung Phase:  

Inclusion Criteria:  Patients with unresectable, multinodular, asymptomatic HCC (BCLC stage B), with measurable lesions on CT or MRI; no macrovascular invasion (MVI) or extrahepatic spread (EHS); Child-Pugh class A and compensated liver function; an Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group (ECOG) performance status of 0; no ascites; age P18 years, with a life expectancy P12 weeks; and adequate bone marrow function (hemoglobin >9.0 g/dl; absolute neutrophil count (ANC) >1500/mm3 ; platelet count P60 109/L), liver function (bilirubin <3 mg="" dl="" alanine="" aminotransferase="" alt="" and="" aspartate="" aminotransferase="" ast="" 5="" times="" the="" upper="" limit="" of="" normal="" uln="" alkaline="" phosphatase="" 4="" times="" uln="" prothrombin="" time-international="" normalized="" ratio="" pt-inr="" 2="" 3="" or="" pt="" 6="" seconds="" above="" control="" and="" kidney="" function="" serum="" creatinine="" 1="" 5="" times="" uln="" amylase="" and="" lipase="" 3="" times="" uln="" br="">
Exclusion Criteria:  Patients were excluded if they had diffuse HCC; vascular invasion (including segmental portal obstruction); extrahepatic tumor spread; advanced liver disease, as shown by Child-Pugh class B or C liver function, gastrointestinal bleeding, encephalopathy, or ascites; or contraindications for embolization, including
known hepatofugal blood flow or portosystemic shunt. Patients were also excluded if the target lesion had previously undergone local treatment, including resection, radiofrequency ablation (RFA), percutaneous ethanol injection (PEI), or TACE; if they had received local therapy within 4 weeks of a baseline scan; had prior transarterial embolization or TACE; were previously treated with a kinase inhibitor; or had received anthracyclines or radiotherapy for HCC.
Intervention:  Patients were randomized 1:1 to DEB-TACE (300–500 lm beads; 150 mg doxorubicin) plus sorafenib (400 mg twice daily, continuously, n= 154) or matching placebo (n=153).
Treatment was divided into 4-week cycles from the starting date of study drug. Sorafenib or placebo was initiated on day 1 and the first DEB-TACE session was performed 3–7 days later. Bilobar HCCs were treated in a single session. Subsequent TACE treatments were performed on day 1 (± 4 days) of cycles 3, 7, and 13 and every 6 cycles thereafter. Treatment interruptions and up to two dose reductions (to 400 mg once daily
and to 400 mg every other day) were permitted for drug-related AEs; patients who required further dose reductions were withdrawn from the study.

Comparison:  see intervention.
Primary:  Time-to-tumor progression (TTP): measured from the time of randomization until radiologic disease progression, according to modified response evaluation criteria in solid tumors (mRECIST).

Secondary:  - time to MVI/EHS, defined as the time from randomization to evidence of MVI/EHS on CT/MRI scans; OS, measured from the time of randomization until death from any cause;
- overall response rate (ORR);
- disease control rate (DCR);
- a novel endpoint of time to unTACEable progression (TTUP) (for details see text).
Safety outcomes included AEs.

Patients were assessed at screening and randomization, on day 1 of every 4-week cycle (with CT and/or MRI performed every 8 weeks), and at the end of the study (7–14 days after stopping the study drug).

Results:  The HR for TTP for sorafenib plus DEB-TACE vs. placebo plus DEB-TACE was 0.797 (95% CI, 0.588–1.080, one sided p = 0.072.

HR for time to MVI/EHS for sorafenib plus DEB-TACE vs. placebo plus DEBTACE was 0.621 (95% CI, 0.321–1.200, p = 0.076; Fig. 2B); with the median not reached in either group.

HR for OS in the sorafenib plus DEB-TACE vs. the placebo plus DEB-TACE group was 0.898 (95% CI, 0.606–1.330, p = 0.295; Fig. 2C), with the median OS not reached in either group after a median follow-up of 270 days (52 events) and 272 days (49 events), respectively.

TTUP was shorter in the sorafenib plus DEB-TACE than in the placebo plus DEBTACE group (HR 1.586, 95% CI, 1.200–2.096, p = 0.999; Fig. 2D), with median TTUPs of 95 days (95% CI, 62–113 days) and 224 days (95% CI, 158–288 days).

Author's Conclusion:  The overall results of this exploratory trial suggest that the combination of sorafenib plus DEB-TACE was feasible, with manageable toxicities, in patients with intermediate stage HCC and good liver function. The combination did not provide meaningful clinical benefit compared with DEB-TACE alone. The regional differences highlight that the amount of combined treatment received may have been a critical determinant of the clinical outcomes. Likewise, discordance between investigator and central radiologic review and the criteria for additional TACE also may have impacted outcomes. Finally, whether DEB-TACE is the optimal backbone for combination with sorafenib is still unresolved. These experiences may help in the design of studies aiming to clarify the role of sorafenib plus TACE for patients with intermediate stage HCC.
Methodical Notes

Funding Sources:  GIDEON was sponsored by Bayer HealthCare Pharmaceuticals Inc. and Onyx Pharmaceuticals, an Amgen subsidiary.

COI:  Professor Marrero has received honoraria for advisory arrangements from Bayer HealthCare Pharmaceuticals, Inc. and Onyx Pharmaceuticals, an Amgen subsidiary. Professors Furuse and Geschwind have received honoraria for advisory arrangements and research grant support from Bayer HealthCare Pharmaceuticals, Inc. Professor Venook has received honoraria for advisory arrangements and research grant support from Bayer HealthCare Pharmaceuticals, Inc. and Onyx Pharmaceuticals, an Amgen subsidiary. Professors Lencioni and Bronowicki have received honoraria for advisory arrangements from Bayer HealthCare Pharmaceuticals, Inc. Professor Papandreou has received research grant support from Bayer HealthCare Pharmaceuticals, Inc. Dr Nakajima, Mr Lehr, and Ms Heldner are employees of Bayer HealthCare Pharmaceuticals, Inc. Dr Nakajima has stock ownership with Bayer HealthCare Pharmaceuticals, Inc. Drs Kudo, Chen, Dagher, Ladrón de Guevara, Sanyal, Takayama, Yoon, and Ye have no relevant disclosures to report.

Randomization:  no

Blinding:  no

Dropout Rate/ITT-Analysis:  Patients who received at least one dose of sorafenib and underwent at least one follow-up assessment were evaluable for safety, while the intent-to-treat population comprised any patient who received one or more doses of sorafenib. The safety population comprised 3,202 patients and the intent-to-treat population comprised 3,213 patients.


Meyer, Tim et al. Sorafenib in combination with transarterial chemoembolisation in patients with unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma (TACE 2): a randomised placebo-controlled, double-blind, phase 3 trial. The Lancet Gastroenterology & Hepatology. 2. 565-575. 2017
Population Intervention - Comparison Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  2

Study type:  Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study.

Number of Patient:  399 patients (in 20 hospitals in the UK) were screened, 86 excluded, remaining 313 were randomized.

Recruitung Phase:  Nov 4, 2010, and Dec 7, 2015.

Inclusion Criteria:  Histological or non-invasive diagnosis according to the American Association for the Study of Liver Diseases (AASLD) criteria, aged 18 years or older, at least one unidimensional lesion measurable according to Response Evaluation Criteria In Solid Tumors version 1.1 (RECIST v1.1), not being a candidate for surgical resection or liver transplant, Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group (ECOG) performance status of 1 or less, Child-Pugh A liver disease, haemoglobin of 9 g/L or higher, neutrophil count of at least 1·5 × 10⁹ cells per L, platelet count of at least 60 × 10⁹ platelets per L, bilirubin of no more than 50 µmol/L, aspartate aminotransferase (AST) or alanine aminotransferase (ALT) of 5 times upper limit of normal or less, alkaline phosphatase (ALP) of less than 4 times upper limit of normal, creatinine of 1·5 times upper limit of normal or less, international normalised ratio (INR) of 1·5 times upper limit of normal or less, and left ventricular ejection fraction of at least 45%.

Exclusion Criteria:  Extrahepatic metastasis, previous embolisation, systemic therapy or radiotherapy for hepatocellular carcinoma, any contraindication to hepatic embolisation, previous investigational therapy, major surgery or history of bleeding within 4 weeks of
trial entry, hepatic encephalopathy, occlusion of the hepatic artery or main portal vein, myocardial infarction within 6 months or prolonged QT/QTc of more than 450 ms.
Intervention:  Sorafenib + TACE (Oral sorafenib at a dose of 400 mg twice-daily or matching placebo was commenced within 24 h of randomisation and continued until disease progression. DEB-TACE was given 2–5 weeks post-randomisation using drug-eluting beads (DC Bead; BTG PLC, London, UK) loaded with doxorubicin 150 mg according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Administration was via the hepatic artery accessed via the femoral artery, and a superselective
approach was recommended.

Comparison:  Placebo + TACE
Primary:  Progression-free survival defined as the interval between randomisation and progression according to RECIST v1.117 or death due to any cause.

Secondary:  Overall survival measured from date of randomisation to death;
Time to progression, measured from date of randomisation to date of progression;
Response and disease control according to RECIST v1.1 guidelines;
QOL, scored according to the EORTC manuals; and
number of TACE procedures given within 12 months of randomisation.

Results:  Progression free-survival:
The formal interim futility analysis of progression-free analysis was done in July, 2015, and indicated an HR of 1·03 (95% CI 0·75–1·42, p=0·85), which led to early trial closure.
Median progression-free survival was 238·0 days (95% CI 221·0–281·0) in the sorafenib group versus 235·0 days (209·0–322·0) in the placebo group (HR 0·99 [95% CI 0·77–1·27], p=0·94.

Median overall survival was 631·0 days (95% CI 437·0–879·0) in the sorafenib group versus 598·0 days (500·0–697·0) in the placebo group (HR 0·91 [95% CI 0·67–1·24], p=0·57.

There was no evidence for a difference time to progression between the sorafenib group and the placebo group, with an HR of 0·88 (95% CI 0·67–1·17, p=0·38).

Sensitivity analysis: no evidence of a difference for all survival measures:
HR for progression-free survival was 1·01 (95% CI 0·78–1·30; p=0·94);
HR for overall survival was 0·99 (95% CI 0·73–1·35; p=0·96);
HR for time to progression was 0·87 (95% CI 0·66–1·16; p=0·35).

QoL: According to multilevel regression of QLQ-C30 scores over 360 days, both the mean social and role functioning scales were found to be
up to 6% lower (p=0·045 and p=0·050) for patients in the sorafenib group (notable changes were: mean diarrhoea score was up to 13% higher on average in the sorafenib group (p=0·0095) and mean appetite loss score was up to 10% higher (p=0·0018)).

Adverse events: At least one serious adverse event was reported in 65 (41%) of 157 patients in the sorafenib group and 50 (32%) of 156 patients in the placebo group. 181 serious adverse events were reported in total: 95 (52%) in the sorafenib group and 86 (48%) in the placebo group.

Author's Conclusion:  In summary, the TACE 2 trial contributes compelling evidence that the concurrent administration of sorafenib with DEB-TACE does not improve outcomes compared with DEB-TACE alone, and also provides valuable lessons to inform future trial development.
Methodical Notes

Funding Sources:  This study was partly supported by National Cancer Center,Korea (grant #1810031, #1510520). We thank Bayer Healthcarefor providing sorafenib and some financial support.

COI:  Employment or leadership position: none.
Consultant or advisory role: Joong-Won Park, BMS, Ono, Bayer, Eisai, Midatech, Roche, Cue; Yoon Jun Kim, Gilead, Bayer, Ono, AbbVie
Seung Woon Paik, BMS, Ono, Bayer, Eisai
Han Chu Lee, BMS, Ono, Bayer, Silla-jen
Jaeyoun Cheong, Bukwang.
Stock Ownership: none.
Honoraria: Joong-Won Park, Eisai, Bayer, Ono;
Yoon Jun Kim, Bayer, Gilead.
Research Funding: Yoon Jun Kim, BTG, Bayer, Ono, Astra-Zeneca, Roche, LG, BMS. Expert Testimony: None.
Patents, Roy-alties, and Licenses: none.
Other Remunerations: none.


Randomization:  block randomization method (block sizes 2 or 4).

Blinding:  no blinding reported

Dropout Rate/ITT-Analysis:  - A total of 17 patients from Arm C and 2 from Arm S who did not receive cTACE or sorafenib were excluded from the full analysis set
- outcomes were analyzed by the intention-to-treat principle.

Notes:  
evidence level 2: randomized controlled trial
Park, J. W. et al. Sorafenib with or without concurrent transarterial chemoembolization in patients with advanced hepatocellular carcinoma: The phase III STAH trial. J Hepatol. 70. 684-691. 2019
Population Intervention - Comparison Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  2

Study type:  Randomized, Controlled Phase III Trial

Number of Patient:  339 patients from 13 hospitals in South Korea

Recruitung Phase:  Between January 2013 and December 2015

Inclusion Criteria:  - stages III, IVa, or IVb HCC according to the modified Union for International Cancer Control (mUICC) TNM staging criteria (with vascular invasion, lymph node metastasis [any lymph node ≥1 cm] or extrahepatic tumor spread);
- advanced HCC (mUICC stages III, IVa-b) indicated for systemic chemotherapy (but not curative therapy) as treatment of choice;
- advanced HCC (mUICC stages III or IVa-b) that progressed despite prior local treatment;
and advanced HCC progression and the requirement for 3 TACE sessions within the first 6 months (TACE refractoriness).
- Eligible patients were aged ≥20 years and had ≥1 typical enhanced measurable tar-get lesion of ≤15 cm based on the Response Evaluation Crit-ria in Solid Tumors (RECIST) version 1.1, Child-Pugh scores≤7, Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group (ECOG) performancestatus score ≤2.

Exclusion Criteria:  - patients were excluded if they had no measurable tumor of a diffuse infiltrative HCC type or brain metastases,
a- complete obstructive invasion of the main portal vein (Vp4), inferior venacava invasion (Vv3), first order branch of the biliary duct inva-sion (B3), or had received any previous systemic therapy
- patients were excluded if they received any locoregional therapy for HCC or radiotherapy for intrahepatic lesions 4 weeks or 3 months, respectively, prior to signing the informed consent
Intervention:  sorafenib with cTACE (combination; Arm C), 400 mg twice daily (odse reduction was allowed by protocol)

Comparison:  - sorafenib without cTACE (sorafenib alone; Arm S), 400 mg twice daily
- Patients randomized to Arm C received the first cTACE between 7 and 21 days after randomization then resumed sorafenib between 3 and 28 days after the first cTACE
Primary:  overall survival (OS)

Secondary:  Time to progression (TTP)
Tumor response rate (TRR)
Progression free survival(PFS)
adverse events (AE)



Results:  overall survival
- median OS was 12.8 months (90% CI 11.5–15.0) for Arm C and 10.8 months (90% CI 8.7–12.7) for Arm S.
- HR of arm c was 0.91 (90% CI 0.687–1.205;p= 0.2898)
- Predefined subgroup analysis for OS failed to show a benefit for SOR+T with any stratification factors
Time to progression
- Median TTP was 5.3 months (90% CI 3.7–5.7) for Arm C and 3.5 months (90% CI 2.1–3.7) for Arm S (HR 0.674; 90% CI 0.533–0.852;p= 0.0028)
Progression free survival
- Median PFS was 5.2 months (90% CI 3.7–5.6) for Arm C and 3.6 months (90% CI 2.6–3.7) for Arm S (HR 0.733; 90%CI 0.589–0.912;p= 0.0097)
Tumor response rate
- Arm C TRR was significantly higher than Arm S TRR (60.6% vs. 47.3% ;p= 0.0053)
Adverse events
- Of patients in Arms C and S, 96.7% and 90.4%, respectively, experienced any AEs (p= 0.0227)
- For Arms C and S, serious (grade ≥3) adverse events occurred in 33.3% vs. 19.8% (p= 0.006) of patients and included increased alanine aminotransferase levels (20.3% vs. 3.6%), hyperbilirubinemia (11.8% vs. 3.0%), ascites (11.8% vs. 4.2%), thrombocytopenia (7.2% vs. 1.2%), anorexia (7.2% vs. 1.2%),and hand-foot skin reaction (10.5% vs. 11.4%).

Author's Conclusion:  In conclusion, in patients with advanced HCC, compared tosorafenib alone, SOR+T therapy did not improve OS. However,SOR+T therapy significantly improved TTP, PFS, and TRR. Treat-ment with sorafenib alone remains the first-line standard ofcare for patients with advanced HCC.
Methodical Notes

Funding Sources:  This work was supported in part by Bayer Italy. The study was designed by the lead investigator (AS, Humanitas Cancer Center). Bayer Italy, the manufacturer of sorafenib, provided the investigational drug and supported the study with a grant, but had no role in data analysis or in the decision to publish the results.

COI:  - CP received research grants from Bayer-Schering Pharma and acted as consultant and speaker for the same company.
- CB participated in a board for Sanofi.
- SF conducted a trial sponsored by Bayer.
- AS was a consultant for Bayer.
- The remaining authors have declared no conflicts of interest.

Randomization:  none

Blinding:  none

Dropout Rate/ITT-Analysis:  - of 300 patients initially enrolled, 3 patients never received sorafenib and only data relevant to 297 patients are presented
- Data on TTP were available in 240 patients (80.8%; 206 CP class A and 34 CP class B), 57 patients did not present a radiological evaluation post-enrolment due to death (15.8%), AEs (36.8%) and other reasons (47.4%).
HCC TACE+Systemtherapie BCLC B

Schlüsselfrage:

2023 Update - HCC Kombination TACE + Systemtherapie
Profitieren Patienten mit einem HCC im Stadium BCLC B von einer Kombination aus TACE und Systemtherapie
P: Patienten mit HCC im Stadium BCLC B
I: TACE + Checkpoint-Inhibition
TACE + Atezolizumab/Bevacizumab, Pembrolizumab, Nivolumab
TACE + Durvalumab/Tremelimumab
TACE + Tyrosinkinaseinhibitor
TACE + Sorafenib
TACE + Lenvatinib
TACE + CPI + TKI
C: TACE alleine
O: Overall survival
Time to Progression oder Progression free survival
Adverse Events
Quality of life

Inhalt: 6 Literaturstellen
Literaturstelle Evidenzlevel Studientyp
Cai, R. 2017 2 Systematic review and meta-analysis of nine randomized controlled trials and five non-randomized controlled trials.
Dai, Y. 2021 2 Systematic review and meta-analysis (7 randomized controlled trials)
Duan, R. 2023 3 Systematic review and meta-analysis (9 RCTs, 21 observational studies)
Gu, H. 2020 3 Randomized controlled trial.
Kudo, M. 3 Randomised controlled trial
Zhao, S. 2020 2 Systematic review and meta-analysis of 23 studies (18 RCTs, 5 case-control)


OXFORD (2011) - AMSTAR 2: Systematic Reviews: 4 Bewertung(en)
Cai, R. et al. Transcatheter arterial chemoembolization plus sorafenib versus transcatheter arterial chemoembolization alone to treat advanced hepatocellular carcinoma: a meta-analysis. BMC Cancer. 17. 714. 2017
Evidence level/Study Types P - I - C Outcomes/Results Literature References
Evidence level:  2

Overall confidence in the results of the review:  AMSTAR II critical appraisal tool for systematic reviews:
3 critical flaws (items 4, 2, 7), 2 non-critical flaws (items 5,10)
Overall quality of evidence: CRITICALLY LOW

Oxford CEBM Levels of Evidence (2011): Systematic review of randomized trials
Downgraded one level due to "Critically low" quality of the AMSTAR appraisal

Study type:  Systematic review and meta-analysis of nine randomized controlled trials and five non-randomized controlled trials.
Databases:  PubMed, Web of Science, the Cochrane Li- brary, CNKI, Wan Fang and China Science and Tech- nology Journal Database (CSTJ)

Search period:  from January 2009 to June 2016.

Inclusion Criteria:  (1) Research subjects were diagnosed with advanced HCC by clinical and pathological assessment. Moreover, these patients were not eligible for surgical treatment.
(2) Research subjects were recruited to a clinical case- control study and were assigned to the TACE plus soraf- enib group or the TACE group randomly or based on their wishes. In the TACE group, patients received TACE combination chemotherapeutics, and the chemothera- peutic agents that were concurrently used were epirubi- cin, cisplatin, gemcitabine, doxorubicin, irinotecan and mitomycin. In the combination group, 400 mg of sorafe- nib was administered twice daily from 3 to 7 days after TACE until the disease progressed or the patient died.
(3) Studies must be published, and the primary data from case-control or cohort studies must have been pro- vided in the publication. (4) Studies providing original data concerning the ORR, DCR, survival rate and adverse reactions. The data were either reported in these studies or calculated

Exclusion Criteria:  1) The original data were not suitable for analysis. (2) Meeting abstracts, case reports, editorials, reviews and other meta-analyses were not included. (3) Multiple publications, duplicate records and similar studies were excluded.
Population:  patients with advanced hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC)

Intervention:  sorafenib with transcatheter arterial chemoembolization (TACE)

Comparison:  TACE alone
Primary:  Efficacy outcomes (ORR, DCR), OS, AE.

Secondary:  -

Results:  Only PICO outcomes reported here
Overall survival (8 studies):
0.5-year OS higher in combination therapy group (OR = 2.60, 95% CI = 1.57–4.29, p = 0.0002) 1-year OS higher in combination therapy group (OR =1.88, 95% CI = 1.39–2.53, p < 0.0001).
Median OS and median time to progression (5 studies): significantly increased in the combination group compared to the control group (no meta-analysis)

Adverse reactions (7 studies)
The incidence of hand-foot skin, hypertension, diarrhoea, fatigue, hepatotoxicity and rash were significantly increased for combination treatment compared with that for TACE alone (RR = 9.83, 95% CI = 6.12–15.81, p < 0.00001; RR = 2.76, 95% CI =1.89–4.02, p < 0.00001; RR = 3.35, 95% CI =2.48–4.52, p < 0.00001; RR = 1.25, 95% CI = 1.05–1.48, p = 0.01; RR = 1.27, 95% CI = 1.03–1.56, p = 0.03; and RR = 3.92, 95% CI = 2.58–5.94, p < 0.00001, respectively).
The incidence of myelosuppression and alopecia did not significantly increase in the combination treatment group compared with the TACE alone group (RR = 1.38, 95% CI =0.89–2.12, p = 0.15; and RR = 2.87, 95% CI =0.71–11.67, p = 0.14, respectively).

Author's Conclusion:  The meta-analysis indicated that combination therapy is safe and efficient for clinical application.
14 studies (9 RCTs, 5 RCTs):
Hu 2013, Wu 2010, Jiang 2010, Chen 2012, Wei 2009, Wei 2012, Yu 2011, Yang 2013, Ye 2013, Sun 2014, Zhou 2014, Wang 2015, Lencioni 2016, Kudo 2011

Dai, Y. et al. Optimal timing of combining sorafenib with trans-arterial chemoembolization in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma: A meta-analysis. Transl Oncol. 14. 101238. 2021
Evidence level/Study Types P - I - C Outcomes/Results Literature References
Evidence level:  2

Overall confidence in the results of the review:  AMSTAR II critical appraisal tool for systematic reviews:
2 critical flaws (items 2, 7), 3 non-critical flaws (items 5,10,14)
Overall quality of evidence: CRITICALLY LOW

Downgraded one level due to "Critically low" quality of the AMSTAR appraisal


Study type:  Systematic review and meta-analysis (7 randomized controlled trials)
Databases:  PubMed, EMBASE, the Cochrane Library, MEDLINE, and Web of Science

Search period:  Inception - May 15, 2021

Inclusion Criteria:  (a) patients diagnosed with HCC according to the diagnostic criteria;
(b) the studies were RCTs;
(c) treatments included TACE and sorafenib;
(d) English articles and adult patients; (e) study endpoints involved the hazard ratio (HR) and its corresponding 95% confidence interval (CI) for overall survival (OS), time to progression (TTP), time to untreatable progression (TTUP), progression-free survival (PFS) which were avail- able or could be calculated, and tumor response, objective response rate (ORR), disease control rate (DCR), and adverse events (AEs).

Exclusion Criteria:  (a) reviews, meta-analysis, abstracts, letters, consensus, editorials, papers, as well as case reports;
(b) animal experiments;
(c) none-English articles;
(d) incomplete information.
Population:  Patients with unresectable HCC

Intervention:  TACE + sorafenib

Comparison:  TACE + placebo / alone
Primary:  overall survival (OS), time to progression (TTP), time to untreatable progression (TTUP), progression-free survival (PFS), tumor response, objective response rate (ORR), disease control rate (DCR), and adverse events (AEs).

Secondary:  -

Results:  OS (3 RCTs):
Median OS time ranged from 9.0 to 29.7 months (TACE + sorafenib ) and 9.1 to 22.5 months (TACE + placebo / alone).
No improvement by combination therapy (not significant): HR 0.93 (95% CI 0.59–1.46, P = 0.75) fixed effects model.
TTP (6 RCTs):
The median TTP time ranged from 2.4 to 26.7 months and 2.8 to 16.4 months for patients with TACE + sorafenib and those with TACE + placebo / alone.
Combination therapy prolonged TTP: HR 0.73 (95% CI 0.55–0.96, P = 0.003), random effects model.
TTUP (2 RCTs):
Median TTUP time was 3.2 to 26.7 months (TACE + sorafenib) and 7.5 to 20.6 ( TACE + placebo / alone).
Likely no improvement by combination therapy (not significant). HR for TTUP was 0.76 (95% CI 0.31–1.89, P = 0.56),random effects model.
PFS (3 RCTs):
Higher PFS in combination group: HR 0.62 (95% CI 0.52–0.73, P < 0.00001), fixed effects model.
Adverse effects (AEs) (7 RCTs):
Incidence of AEs higher in combination group, hetero- geneities were discovered in alopecia, amylase, constipation, diarrhea, elevated ALT, elevated AST, elevated lipase, fatigue, hypertension, thrombocytopenia.

Author's Conclusion:  The combination of TACE and sorafenib significantly can improve TTP and PFS, and reduce the level of risk of adverse reactions of unresectable HCC, especially in the combination before TACE.
7 RCTs included:
Hoffmann, Kudo, Kudo, Lencioni, Liu, Meyer, Sansonno.

Duan, R. et al. Transarterial chemoembolization (TACE) plus tyrosine kinase inhibitors versus TACE in patients with hepatocellular carcinoma: a systematic review and meta-analysis. World J Surg Oncol. 21. 120. 2023
Evidence level/Study Types P - I - C Outcomes/Results Literature References
Evidence level:  3

Overall confidence in the results of the review:  AMSTAR II critical appraisal tool for systematic reviews:
3 critical flaws (items 4,7,11), 3 non-critical flaws (items 3,5,10)
Overall quality of evidence: CRITICALLY LOW

Oxford CEBM Levels of Evidence (2011): Systematic review of randomized trials and observational studies.
Downgraded because of the majority of observational evidence and joint analysis.
Downgraded one level due to "Critically low" quality of the AMSTAR appraisal


Study type:  Systematic review and meta-analysis (9 RCTs, 21 observational studies)
Databases:  PubMed, Embase, Cochrane Library, and Web of Science

Search period:  Inception to March 15, 2022.

Inclusion Criteria:  (1) study design: RCTs, retrospective or prospective cohort studies, and case control studies;
(2) study population: patients with uHCC;
(3) intervention: TACE plus sorafenib/lenvatinib/ apatinib/brivanib/orantinib versus TACE plus placebo or TACE alone (including conventional TACE and TACE with drug-eluting beads); and
(4) the study was limited to English language articles and required adult patient information including overall survival (OS) and time to progression (TTP) (HR and corresponding 95% confi- dence interval [CI]), tumor response rates, and adverse events (AEs).


Exclusion Criteria:  (1) comments, editorials, systematic reviews, meta-analyses, and studies unrelated to our topics were excluded from the final analysis, as were those unrelated to our topic or lacking useful information;
(2) the same study was published by the same authors or based on the same database;
(3) cases treated with TACE combined with other anti-tumor drugs were excluded; and
(4) cases treated with TACE combined with TKIs and immuno- therapy were excluded
Population:  Unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma patients.

Intervention:  TACE plus TKIs

Comparison:  TACE monotherapy.
Primary:  Time to progression (TTP).

Secondary:  Overall survival (OS), tumor response rates, and adverse events (AEs).

Results:  Time to progression TTP (14 studies)
TACE plus TKIs vs. TACE plus placebo or TACE alone: HR of 0.72 (95% CI, 0.65–0.80), random-effects model
Overall survival OS (28 studies)
TACE plus TKIs vs. TACE plus placebo or TACE alone: combined HR, 0.57; 95% CI, 0.49–0.67).
Adverse effects AEs
Most common AE in TACE plus TKIs treatment were hand and foot skin reactions (OR, 87.17; 95% CI, 42.88–177.23), diarrhea (OR, 18.13; 95% CI, 9.32–35.27), and hypertension (OR, 12.24; 95% CI, 5.89–25.42), random-effects model.
Common AE in TACE plus sorafenib were hand-foot skin reactions, diarrhea, hypertension, hair loss, and bleeding.
TACE plus brivanib included hand-foot skin reactions, hypertension, rash/desquamation, nausea, and fever.
TACE plus orantinib included diarrhea, gastrointestinal disease, abdominal pain, elevated alanine transaminase (ALT) levels, and fever. TACE plus lenvatinib included diarrhea, nausea, hypertension, gastric ulcers, and bleeding.
TACE plus apatinib included diarrhea, gastric ulcers, hemorrhage, erythema multiforme, and hypoalbuminemia.

Author's Conclusion:  Our meta-analysis found that TACE plus TKIs may be beneficial for patients with uHCC in terms of TTP, OS, and tumor response rates. However, combination therapy is also associated with a significantly increased risk of adverse reactions. Therefore, we must evaluate the clinical benefits and risks of combination therapy. Further well- designed RCTs are needed to confirm our findings.
30 studies included:
9 RCTs: Hidaka 2019, Hoffmann 2015, Kudo 2014, Kudi 2011, Kudo 2017, Kudo 2019, Lencioni 2016, Meyer 2017, Inaba 2013.
21 observational studies: Fan 2019, Shen 20202, Li 2021, Kan 2020, Liu 2019, Sun 2020, Yao 2016, Zhu 2014, Zhao 2016, Wu 2017, Ren 2019, Zou 2021, Ohki 2015, Wan 2016, Wang 2020, Bi 2013, Lei 2018, Hu 2014, Peng 2019, Peng 2019, Fu 2021.

Zhao, S. et al. A comparison of transcatheter arterial chemoembolization used with and without apatinib for intermediate- to advanced-stage hepatocellular carcinoma: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann Transl Med. 8. 542. 2020
Evidence level/Study Types P - I - C Outcomes/Results Literature References
Evidence level:  2

Overall confidence in the results of the review:  AMSTAR II critical appraisal tool for systematic reviews:
3 critical flaws (items 2, 7, 13), 3 non-critical flaws (items 5,6,10)
Overall quality of evidence: CRITICALLY LOW

Oxford CEBM Levels of Evidence (2011): Systematic review of randomized trials
Downgraded one level due to "Critically low" quality of the AMSTAR appraisal

Study type:  Systematic review and meta-analysis of 23 studies (18 RCTs, 5 case-control)
Databases:  PubMed, Embase, Web of Science, the Cochrane Library, China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), Wanfang Database, Chinese Biomedical Literature Database (CBM), Chinese Science and Technology Periodical Database (VI

Search period:  Inception - July 31, 2019

Inclusion Criteria:  (I) patients should be clearly diagnosed with intermediate- to advanced-stage HCC by computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) or pathology;
(II) studies should include an experimental group and a control group, with the experimental group having received apatinib combined with TACE and the control group having received TACE monotherapy;
(III) evaluation indicators should include complete response (CR), partial response (PR), stable disease (SD), and progressive disease (PD) according to the mRECIST to evaluate tumor response. Other evaluation indicators such as adverse events (AEs), half-year survival rate and one-year survival rate were also assessed if the number of included studies was more than three.

Exclusion Criteria:  (I) repetitive studies, narrative reviews, systematic reviews, letters, comments, case reports or studies unrelated to our topic; (II) studies in which patients had other malignancies or had received other interventions; (III) studies where no available data was extracted or no control group was established
Population:  patients with intermediate- to advanced-stage HCC

Intervention:  TACE plus apatinib combination therapy

Comparison:  TACE alone
Primary:  complete response (CR), partial response (PR), stable disease (SD), and progressive disease (PD) according to the mRECIST to evaluate tumor response.

Secondary:  Adverse events (AEs), half-year survival rate and one-year survival rate.

Results:  Only outcomes listed in the PICO reported here:
Half-year survival rate (6 studies).
Higher in combined therapy group (TACE + apatinib) than in monotherapy group (OR, 2.741, 95% CI, 1.745–4.306, P<0.001).
One-year survival rate (6 studies).
Higher in combined therapy group (TACE + apatinib) than in monotherapy group (OR, 2.284, 95% CI, 1.442–3.620, P<0.001).

Adverse events:
Fever (12 studies): Not significant (OR, 1.057, 95% CI, 0.749–1.492).
Abdominal pain (9 studies): Not significant (OR, 1.080, 95% CI, 0.748–1.558).
Nausea/vomit (12 studies): Not significant (OR, 1.099, 95% CI, 0.778–1.554).
Myelosuppression (9 studies): Not significant (OR, 1.119, 95% CI, 0.682–1.835) OR, 20.681, 95% CI, 9.399–45.503).
Proteinuria (11 studies): Higher incidence in TACE plus apatinib in comparison to TACE alone incidence of proteinuria (OR, 9.830, 95% CI, 4.685–20.625).
Diarrhea (12 studies): Higher incidence in TACE plus apatinib in comparison to TACE alone (OR, 3.375, 95% CI, 1.932–5.897).
Oral ulcer (4 studies): Higher incidence in TACE plus apatinib in comparison to TACE alone (OR, 3.843, 95% CI, 0.834–17.720)

Author's Conclusion:  The combination treatment of apatinib and TACE provides better survival benefits for intermediate- to advanced-stage HCC patients when compared to TACE monotherapy and should be recommended for suitable patients with unresectable HCC. However, further investigation into future prospective clinical studies is warranted.
23 studies (18 RCTs and 5 case-control):
Yang et al. 2019, Xiu et al. 2019, Wu et al. 2018, Wu et al. 2019, Wu et al. 2019, Wang et al. 2017, Song et al. 2018, Shen et al. 2019, Lu et al. 2019, Li et al. 2017, Li et al. 2018, Jin et al. 2017, Huang et al. 2018, Huang et al. 2017, He et al. 2018, Cui et al. 2019, Zeng et al. 2018, Zeng et al. 2018, Bai et al. 2018, Yang et al. 2018, Zhu et al. 2019, Lu et al. 2017, Chen et al. 2018,

Cochrane Risk of Bias Tool 1 (RCT): 2 Bewertung(en)
Gu, H. et al. Efficacy and safety of apatinib combined with transarterial chemoembolization (TACE) in treating patients with recurrent hepatocellular carcinoma. Ann Transl Med. 8. 1677. 2020
Population Intervention / Comparison Outcomes/Results Methodical Notes
Evidence level:  3
Study type:  Randomized controlled trial.
Number of Patients:  80 patients with postoperative recurrent HCC.
Recruiting Phase:  Between January 2018 and January 2020 at the Xinqiao Hospital of Army Medical University.
Inclusion Criteria:  (I) aged 18 years or older; (II) diagnosed with HCC by two imaging modalities or biopsy; (III) intrahepatic recurrence after hepatic resection; (IV) Barcelona Clinic Liver Cancer (BCLC) stage B/C; (V) Child-Pugh class A/ B; (VI) could not tolerate or refuse performing re-resection or salvage transplantation; (VII) adequate organ function; (VIII) an Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group (ECOG) performance status (PS) score of 0–2; and (IX) no vascular invasion or extra-hepatic metastasis.
Exclusion Criteria:  (I) combined use of other anticancer therapy after the surgery; (II) accompanied by other malignancies; (III) severe coagulation disorders; (IV) serious medical comorbidity; and (V) a large amount of ascites or refractory ascites.
Intervention:  TACE plus apatinib.
Comparison:  TACE-alone.
Primary:  PFS, OS, Tumor response, AEs
Secondary:  -
Results:  Only PICO outcomes reported here.
PFS and OS
The median PFS was significantly improved in the TACE plus apatinib vs. TACE-alone [17.2 months, 95% confidence interval (CI): 13.6–20.8 vs. 12.5 months, 95% CI: 11.3–13.7, hazard ratio (HR) =0.563, 95% CI: 0.336–0.943, P=0.041].
At the end of the follow-up, more patients survived in the TACE plus apatinib group than in the TACE-alone group [90.0% (36/40) vs. 75.0% (30/40)], but the median OS has not yet been reached in either group, and the differences were not statistically significant (HR =0.360, 95% CI: 0.113–1.150, P=0.072).
The 1- and 2-year OS rates in the two groups were 95.0% vs. 85.0% (P=0.136) and 90.0% vs. 75.0% (P=0.077).
AEs
Two categories of AEs were considered in this study: postembolization syndrome (PES) and apatinib-related AEs. Features of PES typically include fever, abdominal pain, nausea and vomiting, and myelosuppression. No significant difference was found in the incidence of PES between the two groups (all P>0.05).
The incidence of apatinib-related AEs was 80.0% (32/40) in the TACE plus apatinib group. Treatment- related AEs in the TACE plus apatinib group included the following: hand-foot syndrome (16/40, 40.0%), hypertension (11/40, 27.5%), fatigue (10/40, 25.0%), diarrhea (9/40, 22.5%), oral ulcer (9/40, 22.5%), and proteinuria (6/40, 15.0%). The majority of toxicities were grade 1–2, which is consistent with the known toxicities associated with apatinib. Once the patients developed grade 3 AE, the dose of apatinib was reduced from 500 mg qd to 250 mg qd until remission of symptoms, and the patients could then resume apatinib at 500 mg per day Thus,no patient developed grade 4 toxicity.
The addition of apatinib to TACE significantly increased the incidence of apatinib-related complications compared to treatment with TACE alone (all P<0.05,).
No unexpected toxicity or procedure-related mortality was observed in either group, and all AEs were effectively alleviated after symptomatic treatment.
Author's Conclusion:  The combination treatment of apatinib and TACE might be safe and of potential benefit on patients with intrahepatic recurrent HCC.
Funding Sources:  Declared.
COI:  Declared.
Randomization:  randomized (1:1) into TACE plus apatinib group or TACE-alone group by using the block randomization method. No patient was allowed to switch groups once randomized.
Blinding:  Open-label study.
Dropout Rate/ITT-Analysis:  no intention-to-treat analysis, no description of dropouts.
Notes:  Cochrane risk of bias tool (Rob)-1:
4 questions(s) were considered to be high risk of bias
Overall risk of bias: High

Oxford CEBM Levels of Evidence (2011): Randomized trial
Downgraded one level due to high risk of bias.

Kudo, M. et al. Final Results of TACTICS: a Randomized, Prospective Trial Comparing Transarterial Chemoembolization Plus Sorafenib to Transarterial Chemoembolization Alone in Patients with Unresectable Hepatocellular Carcinoma. . . .
Population Intervention / Comparison Outcomes/Results Methodical Notes
Evidence level:  3
Study type:  Randomised controlled trial
Number of Patients:  156 patients with unresectable HCC, randomized 1:1
Recruiting Phase:  between February 2011 and March 2016
Inclusion Criteria:  All patients included in the study were older than 20 years and had a life expectancy of 12 weeks or longer, with tumors local- ized in the liver without vascular invasion or extrahepatic metastasis. The patients had a maximum of 10 tumors, each with a maximum size of 10 cm. Patients who had received 1–2 prior TACE procedures were allowed to enroll in the study provided that the previous TACE was performed more than 6 months before the enrolment. The participants had an Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group performance status of zero or one, Child-Pugh score ≤7, and well-preserved organ function.
Exclusion Criteria:  Patients with a history of sys- temic chemotherapy were excluded.
Intervention:  TACE plus sorafenib
Comparison:  TACE alone
Primary:  TACE-specific PFS and OS.
Secondary:  objective response rate after the first session of TACE and safety.
Results:  TACE-specific PFS:
TACE-specific PFS significantly longer in the TACE plus sorafenib group than in the TACE alone group (25.2 vs. 13.5 months; HR = 0.59; 95% CI, 0.41–0.87; p = 0.006)
TACE-specific OS:
Median OS in the TACE plus sorafenib group 36.2 months (95% CI, 30.5–44.1) vs. TACE monotherapy group 30.8 months (95% CI, 23.5–40.8). TACE plus sorafenib did not provide a significantly greater survival benefit TACE Plus Sorafenib in Unresectable HCC than TACE monotherapy (HR = 0.861; 95% CI, 0.607– 1.223; p = 0.40). Subgroup analysis not reported here.
AEs:
treatment-related AEs affecting more than 10% of either treatment group and Grades three and four AEs occurring within 8 weeks after the first TACE. Patients in the TACE plus sorafenib group expe- rienced more AEs of all grades than patients in the TACE alone group, including hand-foot skin reaction (66.2% vs. 0.0%), hypertension (58.4% vs. 39.4%), elevated lipase (49.4% vs. 25.4%), fatigue (26.0% vs. 9.9%), diarrhea (16.9% vs. 0.0%), erythema multiforme (11.7% vs. 0.0%), weight loss (13.0% vs. 2.8%), and hoarseness (13.0% vs. 0.0%).
Author's Conclusion:  In TAC- TICS trial, TACE plus sorafenib did not show significant OS benefit over TACE alone; however, clinical meaningful OS prolongation and significantly improved PFS was observed. Thus, the TACE plus sorafenib can be considered a choice of treatment in intermediate-stage HCC, especially in patients with high tumor burden.
Funding Sources:  This work was supported by the Japan Liver Oncology Group with funding from Bayer Yakuhin Ltd., Japan under a research contract.
COI:  Declared.
Randomization:  Patients were randomized 1:1 to treatment with either TACE plus sorafenib or TACE alone. Randomization was performed by a centralized data center using an interactive web response system involving a computer-generated sequence and electric data cap- ture system software (Viedeoc, Uppsala, Sweden). Patient alloca- tion factors were: (1) site, (2) meeting or not meeting Milan crite- ria (one lesion ≤5 cm or ≤3 lesions of ≤3 cm each), and (3) number of prior TACE sessions (0 vs. 1–2 times).
Blinding:  open-label study. parti
Dropout Rate/ITT-Analysis:  Efficacy data were analyzed on an intention-to-treat basis.
Notes:  Cochrane risk of bias tool (Rob)-1:
3 questions(s) were considered to be high risk of bias
Overall risk of bias: High

Oxford CEBM Levels of Evidence (2011): Randomized trial
Downgraded one level due to high risk of bias.

Other considerations:
Final analysis of the TACTICS trial; other publications of the same study are included in the included meta-analyses such as the one by Duan et al. 2023.

HCC He 2021 PDL1

 

He, S. et al. The Efficacy and Safety of Programmed Death-1 and Programmed Death Ligand 1 Inhibitors for the Treatment of Hepatocellular Carcinoma: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Front Oncol. 11. 626984. 2021
Evidence level/Study Types P - I - C Outcomes/Results Literature References
Evidence level:  3

Study type:  Systematic review and meta-analysis (8 single arm studies, 2 RCTs, 2 retrospective cohort studies).
Databases:  Embase, PubMed, Cochrane Library and ClinicalTrials.gov.

Search period:  Inception - October 2020.

Inclusion Criteria:  (1) Study design: Randomized controlled trials (RCTs), cohort studies or single-arm studies about the treatment of HCC with PD-1 or PD-L1 inhibitors.
(2) Population: patients with HCC.
(3) Intervention and comparison: PD-1 or PD-L1 inhibitors were compared with placebo or other non-ICI drugs for HCC, such as sorafenib.
(4) Outcomes: response rate, disease control rate, progression-free survival and overall survival

Exclusion Criteria:  1) Duplicated articles. (2) Articles with too small sample size to extract data. (3) Articles that did not provide outcomes needed. (4) Articles about the combination of ICIs with other treatments for HCC. (5) Articles in other languages than English.
Population:  Patients with HCC

Intervention:  PD-1 or PD-L1 inhibitors

Comparison:  Placebo or other non-ICI drugs for HCC, such as sorafenib
Primary:  Response rate, disease control rate, progression-free survival and overall survival

Secondary:  -

Results:  Finally, twelve studies were included in this meta-analysis. When the corresponding outcome indicators and their 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were pooled directly, the overall RR, DCR, PFS and OS were 0.17 (0.15-0.19, I2 = 56.2%, P=0.009), 0.58 (0.55-0.61, I2 = 75.9%, P<0.001), 3.27 months (2.99-3.55, I2 = 73.0%, P=0.001), 11.73 months (10.79-12.67, I2 = 90.3%, P<0.001). Compared to the control group, treatment with ICIs significantly improved RR, PFS and OS, the OR and HRs were 3.11 (2.17-4.44, P<0.001), 0.852 (0.745-0.974, P=0.019) and 0.790 (0.685-0.911, P=0.001), respectively. However, no significant improvement in DCR was found in ICIs treatment in this meta-analysis.

Author's Conclusion:  HCC patients would benefit from ICIs treatment, however, more studies are needed in the future to provide more useful evidence for the treatment of HCC by programmed death-1 (PD-1) or programmed death ligand 1 (PD-L1) inhibitors.
12 studies included:
El-Khoueiry 2017, Feng 2017, Zhu 2018, Pishvaian 2018, Deva 2018, Finkelmeier 2019, Finn 2019, Yau 2019, Scheiner 2019, Qin 2020, Choi 2020, Lee 2020.
Methodical Notes
Funding Sources:  see COI section.

COI:  The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

Study Quality:  No investigation of study quality.

Heterogeneity:  I2 statistic was used to evaluate the heterogeneity among studies. If I2<50% or P>0.10, then the heterogeneity was considered to be low and fixed-effects model was applied. Otherwise, the random effects model was applied.
High heterogeneity was observed in the analysis for OS (I2 = 90%), DCR (I2 = 76%) and PFS (I2 = 73%). The source was not discussed or explored.

Publication Bias:  Not investigated.

Notes:  
Oxford level of evidence: 2 Systematic review of non-randomized controlled cohort / follow-up study.
Downgrade to evidence level 3:
Missing evaluation of study quality or publication bias. Significant heterogeneity that is not explored or explained.
Significant overlap of included studies with Rao et al 2020, but not enough to warrant exclusion (7/12 articles appear in Rao 2020).

 

HCC Parikh 2021 NivoIpi

 

Parikh, N. D. et al. Network meta-analysis of nivolumab plus ipilimumab in the second-line setting for advanced hepatocellular carcinoma. J Comp Eff Res. 10. 343-352. 2021
Evidence level/Study Types P - I - C Outcomes/Results Literature References
Evidence level:  2

Study type:  Network meta-analysis (3 RCTs)
Databases:  -

Search period:  -

Inclusion Criteria:  Patients with advanced HCC who have been previously treated with sorafenib.

Exclusion Criteria:  Clinical trials for treatments indicated in specific subgroups of patients with advanced HCC (e.g., ramucirumab, indicated only for patients with AFP ≥400 ng/ml ) were not included.
Population:  Patients with advanced HCC who have been previously treated with sorafenib.

Intervention:  Not defined.

Comparison:  Not defined
Primary:  Not defined.

Secondary:  Not defined.

Results:  Nivolumab 1 mg/kg + ipilimumab 3 mg/kg had significantly higher objective response rate (median 31.2% [95% credible interval: 19.6–44.5%]) than cabozantinib (4.2% [2.0–6.5%]) and regorafenib (4.8% [1.1–8.3%]), and significantly longer overall survival (cabozantinib: hazard ratio: 0.46 [95% credible interval: 0.27–0.79]; regorafenib: 0.56 [0.32–0.97]). Nivolumab 1 mg/kg + ipilimumab 3 mg/kg had significantly better objective response rate (difference 21.0% [4.5–37.5%]) and overall survival (hazard ratio: 0.58 [0.35–0.96]) than nivolumab monotherapy. Conclusion: Nivolumab 1 mg/kg + ipilimumab 3 mg/kg had a superior efficacy versus cabozantinib 60 mg, regorafenib 160 mg and nivolumab 3 mg/kg monotherapy as second-line therapy for advanced hepatocellular carcinoma.

Author's Conclusion:  Nivolumab 1 mg/kg + ipilimumab 3 mg/kg had a superior efficacy versus cabozantinib 60 mg, regorafenib 160 mg and nivolumab 3 mg/kg monotherapy as second-line therapy for advanced hepatocellular carcinoma.
Three trials included in the article:
MAIC (CheckMate 040 vs CELESTIAL), CELESTIAL, RESORCE
Methodical Notes
Funding Sources:  Financial support for the study was provided by Bristol Myers Squibb.

COI:  Declared, see article for sponsor list.

Study Quality:  Not assesed

Heterogeneity:  Not provided.

Publication Bias:  Not investigated.

Notes:  
Oxford level of evidence: 1 Systematic review of randomized controlled trials.
Downgrade to evidence level 2:
Not a systematic review, therfor no systematic search was conducted; nor a definition of the reasearch question was provided. No assesment of study quality was performed.

 

HCC Rao 2020 PDL1

 

Rao, Q. et al. Clinical benefits of PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitors in advanced hepatocellular carcinoma: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Hepatol Int. 14. 765-775. 2020
Evidence level/Study Types P - I - C Outcomes/Results Literature References
Evidence level:  2

Study type:  Systematic review and meta-analysis (20 early phase studies and 3 RCTs)
Databases:  Medline, Embase, Cochrane Library, and Web of Science

Search period:  Inception - January 31, 2020.

Inclusion Criteria:  1) published in English; (2) study type being clinical trials, retrospective studies, and case series; (3) study including patients with advanced HCC, which can be described as “unresectable”, “metastasis”, “first-line treatment failure”, etc.; (4) study focusing on the efficacy of checkpoint inhibitors of PD-L1 or PD-1 (but not CTLA4) such as nivolumab, pembrolizumab, atezolizumab, sintilimab, durvalumab, camrelizumab, avelumab, toripalimab, tislelizumab, or cemiplimab. PD-1/PD-L1 used in monotherapy or combination therapy was all included. Combination therapy refers to PD-1 or PD-L1 inhibitor combined with non-checkpointinhibitor agents, while monotherapy refers to only receive PD-1 or PD-L1 inhibitor therapy; (5) data for complete response (CR), partial response (PR), stable disease (SD), progression of disease (PD), objective response rate (ORR), disease control rate (DCR), overall survival (OS), progression- free survival (PFS), or median time to progression (TTP) were reported or calculable

Exclusion Criteria:  Studies with sample size less than 10 patients were excluded. For the repetitive studies based on the same study patients, the latest or most comprehensive data were included.
Population:  Patients with advanced HCC, which can be described as “unresectable”, “metastasis”, “first-line treatment failure

Intervention:  Checkpoint inhibitors of PD-L1 or PD-1 (but not CTLA4) such as nivolumab, pembrolizumab, atezolizumab, sintilimab, durvalumab, camrelizumab, avelumab, toripalimab, tislelizumab, or cemiplimab.

Comparison:  Not described, likely any.
Primary:  complete response (CR), partial response (PR), stable disease (SD), progression of disease (PD), objective response rate (ORR), disease control rate (DCR), overall survival (OS), progression-free survival (PFS) and rate of adverse events (AE)

Secondary:  Subgroup analyses:
PD-1 inhibitor or PD-L1 inhibitor and combination therapy ormonotherapy. In addition, pooled results of PD-1/PD-L1 monoclonal antibodies (mAb) combining with anti-VEGF agents were calculated separately.

Results:  A total of 20 studies with 1232 patients were included. The overall CR, PR and SD rate were 0.01 (95% CI 0.01– 0.03), 0.17 (95% CI 0.14–0.22) and 0.39 (95% CI 0.34–0.43), respectively. The overall ORR and DCR were 0.20 (95% CI 0.16–0.24) and 0.60 (95% CI 0.54–0.67), respectively. The overall PFS and OS were 3.58 months (95% CI 2.65–4.50) and 12.24 months (95% CI 10.48–14.00), respectively. For patients treated with PD-1/PD-L1 mAb combing with anti-VEGF agent, ORR was 29% (95% CI 0.15–0.43) and DCR was 77% (95% CI 0.70–0.84). For all included studies, the overall rate of AE was 0.63 (95% CI 0.45–0.78) and serious adverse events (SAE) was 0.11 (95% CI 0.06–0.22).

Author's Conclusion:  PD-1/PD-L1 inhibitors showed favorable outcomes concerning response rates and survival periods in advanced HCC. Updated results from high-quality clinical trials are expected to validate these findings.
23 trials included, see article for list
Methodical Notes
Funding Sources:  None declared.

COI:  Authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Study Quality:  "Quality of the included studies was assessed as reported in the literature, which consists of 20 items. The checklist examines the main domains including study design, population, intervention, outcome measures, statistical analysis, results/conclusions, competing interest, and sources of financial support."
No overall assesment of study quality was provided.

Heterogeneity:  "Randomeffect models were adopted for all meta-analyses because of the clinical heterogeneity inherent to the data. Heterogeneity among studies was quantified by I2 test, and I2 > 50% was considered substantial heterogeneity. To reveal the high heterogeneity, subgroup analyses were performed on the basis of clinical consideration. Stratification factors included type of therapy (monotherapy vs. combination therapy), target of drug (PD-1 vs. PD-L1), evaluation criteria (RECIST vs. mRECIST), region of study (Global vs. Local), primary disease of HCC (HBV/HCV etiology ≤ 50% vs. > 50%), and CTP class (Mixture of CTP A/B/C vs. CTP A only)."
High heterogeneity was present in some analyses (DCR I2 = 80.6%)

Publication Bias:  Egger’s test was performed to evaluate publication bias [17]. Stata Software, version 15.0 (StataCorp, College Station, TX) was used for meta-analysis. p value < 0.05 was considered statistically significant.
No evidence of publication bias was observed via Egger’s tests in the pooled analysis of ORR, DCR, PR, SD, OS, PFS, and MTP, whereas significant publication bias was observed in the meta-analysis of CR and PD.

Notes:  
Oxford level of evidence: 2 Systematic review and meta-analysis of non-randomized controlled cohort / follow up study.

 

HCC Finn 2020 Pembolizumab

 

Finn, R. S. et al. Pembrolizumab As Second-Line Therapy in Patients With Advanced Hepatocellular Carcinoma in KEYNOTE-240: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Phase III Trial. J Clin Oncol. 38. 193-202. 2020
Population Intervention - Comparison Outcomes/Results
Evidence level:  2

Study type:  Randomized controlled trial, double blind

Number of Patient:  413 patients randomized 2:1 (278 pembrolizumab, 135 placebo).

Recruitung Phase:  Between May 31, 2016, and November 23, 2017.

Inclusion Criteria:  Eligible patients were age 18 years or older with a radiographic or pathologic diagnosis of HCC, radiographic progression during or intolerance to sorafenib treatment, and Barcelona Clinic Liver Cancer stage C disease or stage B disease11 not amenable to or refractory to locoregional therapy. Patients had Child-Pugh liver class A disease,12 an Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group performance score of 0 or 1, and otherwise adequate organ function.

Exclusion Criteria:  Patients who had received prior immunotherapy, including anti–PD-1, anti–PD-1 ligand (PD-L1), or anti–PD-L2 agents, or previous systemic therapy for HCC in the advanced setting other than sorafenib were excluded, as were those with clinically apparent ascites on physical examination, main portal vein invasion or inferior vena cava or cardiac involvement of HCC on the basis of imaging, or clinically diagnosed hepatic encephalopathy within the past 6 months.
Intervention:  200 mg of pembrolizumab every 3 weeks for at least 35 cycles (approximately 2 years) plus best supportive care (BSC).

Comparison:  Saline placebo intravenously every 3 weeks for at least 35 cycles (approximately 2 years) plus best supportive care (BSC).
Primary:  Overall survival (OS) and progression-free survival (PFS).

Secondary:  Objective response rate, partial response, disease control rate, duration of response, time to progression, and safety and tolerability.

Results:  Between May 31, 2016, and November 23, 2017, 413 patients were randomly assigned. As of January 2, 2019, median follow-up was 13.8 months for pembrolizumab and 10.6 months for placebo. Median OS was 13.9 months (95% CI, 11.6 to 16.0 months) for pembrolizumab versus 10.6 months (95% CI, 8.3 to 13.5 months) for placebo (hazard ratio [HR], 0.781; 95% CI, 0.611 to 0.998; P = .0238). Median PFS for pembrolizumab was 3.0 months (95% CI, 2.8 to 4.1 months) versus 2.8 months (95% CI, 2.5 to 4.1 months) for placebo at the first interim analysis (HR, 0.775; 95% CI, 0.609 to 0.987; P = .0186) and 3.0 months (95% CI, 2.8 to 4.1 months) versus 2.8 months (95% CI, 1.6 to 3.0 months) at final analysis (HR, 0.718; 95% CI, 0.570 to 0.904; P = .0022). Grade 3 or higher adverse events occurred in 147 (52.7%) and 62 patients (46.3%) for pembrolizumab versus placebo; those that were treatment related occurred in 52 (18.6%) and 10 patients (7.5%), respectively. No hepatitis C or B flares were identified.

Author's Conclusion:  In this study, OS and PFS did not reach statistical significance per specified criteria. The results are consistent with those of KEYNOTE-224, supporting a favorable risk-to-benefit ratio for pembrolizumab in this population.
Methodical Notes
Funding Sources:  Supported by Merck Sharp & Dohme, a subsidiary of Merck, Kenilworth, NJ.

COI:  Declared, see article for list.

Randomization:  Randomization was performed using an interactive voice-response/integrated Web-response system, with stratification by geographic region (Asia excluding Japan v non-Asia including Japan), macrovascular invasion (MVI; yes v no), and a-fetoprotein level (, 200 v $ 200 ng/mL).

Blinding:  Double-blind study.

Dropout Rate/ITT-Analysis:  Efficacy was assessed in the intention-to-treat population.

Notes:  
Oxford level of evidence: 2 Randomized controlled trial.

 

HCC Kudo 2022 Keynote-224 Pembrolizumab
Kudo, M. et al. Updated efficacy and safety of KEYNOTE-224: a phase II study of pembrolizumab in patients with advanced hepatocellular carcinoma previously treated with sorafenib. Eur J Cancer. 167. 1-12. 2022
Population Intervention / Comparison Outcomes/Results Methodical Notes
Evidence level:  3
Study type:  Non-randomised, multicentre, open-label phase II study (KEYNOTE-224 (NCT02702414))
Number of Patients:  In KEYNOTE-224, 104 patients received 1 dose of pembrolizumab at the final analysis.
Recruiting Phase:  Data cutoff 31. July 2020.
Inclusion Criteria:  - Adults had a histologically or cytologically confirmed diagnosis of HCC,
- experienced documented progression after stopping treatment with sorafenib or experienced intolerance to sorafenib, and had
- Barcelona Clinic Liver Cancer stage C or B not amenable to or refractory to locoregional therapy and were not amenable to a curative treatment.
Exclusion Criteria:  see evidence table of original publication.
Intervention:  Pembrolizumab 200 mg intravenous infusion once every 3 weeks for 35 cycles or until confirmed progression/unacceptable toxicity, patient withdrawal of consent or investigator decision.
Comparison:  -
Primary:  Objective response rate (ORR) assessed by BICR per RECIST v1.1.
Secondary:  - Duration of response (DOR),
- disease control rate (DCR),
- time to progression (TTP) and
- PFS

Results:  Among the treated patients, 10 patients completed treatment. The remaining 94 patients
discontinued therapy. The primary reasons for discontinuation were PD in 61 patients and AEs in 24 patients. Four patients received a second course of pembrolizumab.


Objective response rate was 18.3% (95% CI: 11.4-27.1), and median duration of response was 21.0 months (range, 3.1 to 39.5).
Disease control rate was 61.5%, and median time to progression was 4.8 months (95% CI: 3.9-7.0). Median progression-free survival was 4.9 months (95% CI: 3.5-6.7) and
median overall survival was 13.2 months (95% CI: 9.7-15.3).

Of 104 patients, 76 (73.1%) patients reported treatment-related adverse events; most were low grade in severity (grade 3-4, n=26 [25.0%]; grade 5, n=1 [1.0%]). Immune-mediated hepatitis
occurred in 3 patients (all grade 3). No viral-induced hepatitis flares occurred.
Author's Conclusion:  Extended follow-up from KEYNOTE-224 demonstrated that pembrolizumab provides robust and durable efficacy in patients with advanced HCC who were previously treated with sorafenib. Taken together with the consistent safety profile for pembrolizumab, this report confirms the favourable benefit-risk of pembrolizumab in this population.
Funding Sources:  The study sponsor, Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp., a subsidiary of Merck & Co., Inc., Kenilworth, NJ, USA, funded the study. Additionally, the study sponsor designed the study protocol in collaboration with the Steering Advisory Committee.
COI:  see full text
Randomization:  none
Blinding:  none
Dropout Rate/ITT-Analysis:  
Notes:  The presented analysis is a follow-up analysis of Zhou et al 2018 (appraised in Key question HCC 20 Systemtherapie on www.guideline-service.de) and reports efficacy and safety data for KEYNOTE-224 with w2.5 years of additional follow-up, including outcomes for patients receiving a second course of pembrolizumab following disease progression after the first course of pembrolizumab.

ROB assessment:
- no enough details presented here, but initial study was evaluated with low risk of bias. Since this is a follow-up analysis we take over the analysis of the original study of Zhou et al 2018.
Overall assessment - low risk of bias.

Oxford CEBM Levels of Evidence (2011):
Non-randomized controlled cohort.

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